The Rise and Fall of Empires: From Imperialism to Global War
Imperialism and the Road to War
The Rise of Imperialism (1875-1914)
From the turn of the 20th century, expeditions explored the Earth’s surface, culminating in the arrival at the Poles in the early 1900s. The Industrial Revolution empowered certain industrialized nations to exert control over vast regions of the world. Imperialism, a historical phenomenon occurring between 1875 and 1914, saw European powers, along with the U.S. and Japan, embark on conquests, primarily in Africa and Asia.
Causes of Imperialism
- Economic: Following the Second Industrial Revolution, nations sought new markets, raw materials, and investment opportunities to sustain economic growth.
- Strategic: Coastal areas were prioritized to facilitate transportation, exports, and the establishment of economic and military bases.
- Demographic: Colonies served as outlets for excess population seeking fortune abroad.
- Cultural: A sense of superiority arose from the perceived ability to introduce new cultures, languages, religions, and civilized practices.
The Berlin Conference
Initially, colonization focused on Africa’s coastal regions. However, as powers vied for inland territories, Germany’s chancellor convened the Berlin Conference to establish agreements and prevent territorial wars.
Forms of Control
- Colonies: Territories occupied and governed by the dominant empire, controlled by its military, and exploited for its economic benefit.
- Dominions: Territories granted internal autonomy but lacking control over international politics.
Germany and European Diplomacy
Post-unification, Germany emerged as a major power during the period of armed peace, characterized by escalating tensions despite the absence of major European conflicts.
Factors Contributing to Tension
- Franco-Prussian War Aftermath: France’s resentment over territorial losses fueled its diplomatic isolation of Germany.
- The Eastern Question: The decline of the Ottoman Empire sparked independence movements and competition between Russia and Austria-Hungary for regional influence.
- Imperialist Expansion: Clashes between powers in Africa and Asia further exacerbated tensions.
Otto von Bismarck, as chancellor, orchestrated a complex diplomatic strategy to isolate France, forming the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary and later incorporating Italy into the Triple Alliance. Treaties with other Mediterranean nations aimed to maintain order and avoid conflict with Russia on the eastern border.
Following Bismarck’s resignation, Germany’s failure to renew its treaty with Russia and its attempts to gain influence elsewhere led to clashes in Morocco. The territory was eventually divided between Spain and France. French diplomacy fostered closer ties with Italy and Great Britain, culminating in the Triple Entente with Russia and Britain.
The First World War (1914-1918)
Causes of the War
Nationalism, the pursuit of hegemony in the Balkans, and conflicting military blocs fueled the outbreak of World War I. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand triggered an ultimatum from Austria-Hungary to Serbia. Serbia’s unsatisfactory response led to a declaration of war, activating military alliances and rapidly escalating the conflict across Europe and its colonies.
The war involved major European powers and extended to their colonies, becoming a global conflict. The destructive power of weaponry, including chemical weapons, artillery, and tanks, prolonged the war for four years.
Consequences of the War
- Demographic: Ten million deaths, primarily young men, and twenty million casualties, including wounded and maimed.
- Economic and Political: Belligerent nations’ economies underwent significant changes due to resource mobilization and government intervention in production. Propaganda campaigns fueled patriotic nationalism. Massive debts weakened major powers, with the U.S. emerging as the leading economic force.
- Social: Increased female employment due to male mobilization contributed to women’s gradual acquisition of rights and moral standing.