The Rise and Fall of Empires: From Rome to the Modern Era
Slave Economy and the Crisis of the Roman Empire
Maximum Height and Expansion (2nd Century)
The Roman Empire reached its peak during the 2nd century under emperors Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius.
The Crisis of the 3rd Century
The 3rd century saw a decline in the Roman Empire, marked by barbarian incursions, attacks on cities, weakening urban centers, a decline in trade, and a crisis in urban craft production. Simultaneously, rural production units (villages) gained importance, becoming more self-sufficient and autonomous. Many unemployed urban artisans and small landowners, fleeing high taxes, became settlers on large estates. These settlers were initially free but gradually became bound to the land through reforms like the Reform of Diocletian in 297 AD. They lost freedom and became obligated to the lord (Dominus).
The Decline of Slavery
The scarcity of slaves due to a lack of new conquests and the danger of slave revolts favored a change in the system. Recruitment of settlers on large estates became common, foreshadowing feudalism. While slavery didn’t disappear entirely, the economy shifted towards a rural, self-sufficient model, with urban decay as a general trend (with some exceptions).
The Emergence of Christianity
Jesus of Nazareth
Jesus of Nazareth, who lived until approximately 30 AD, is a figure with limited historical information. He presented himself as the Messiah, who would liberate the Jewish people. He reviewed the Law of Moses and criticized the orthodox Pharisees, leading to enmity with the Jewish religious hierarchy. He was accused of blasphemy by the Jewish leaders and of being the “King of the Jews” by the Romans, leading to his execution.
The Rise of Christianity
Jesus’s followers became known as Christians. Initially a sect within Judaism, Christianity expanded to include Gentiles (non-Jews) thanks to the efforts of Saul (Paul) of Tarsus. The Council of Jerusalem in 48 AD formalized this acceptance. The hostility faced by Christians led to their dispersion throughout the Roman Empire, contributing to the universal appeal of Christianity. The slow diffusion of Christianity, especially in the East and Rome, was met with contempt for polytheistic religions and the refusal to worship the emperor, leading to periods of persecution under emperors like Nero (64 AD), Decius (250 AD), and Diocletian (303-311 AD).
Basic Tenets of Christianity
The core message of Christianity is found in the Gospels: love God and your neighbor. The Beatitudes emphasize humility, charity, brotherly love, and hope for Judgment Day. The sacrifice of Jesus, the Son of God, is believed to offer salvation to humanity.
Organization of the Christian Church
Initially democratic, with councils of elders and deacons, the Christian Church gradually developed a hierarchy. Power became concentrated in the hands of the bishop (Episcopos), the head of the diocese. Bishops coordinated with each other and progressively became subordinate to the bishop of Rome, the Pope.
The Edict of Milan
Following the persecution under Diocletian, a civil war erupted between Constantine and Maxentius. Constantine’s victory at the Battle of Milvian Bridge (312 AD), after a dream or vision, led to the Edict of Milan in 313 AD. Signed by Constantine and Licinius, the Edict granted religious freedom and equal rights to Christians. Expropriated assets were returned, and the state cult of emperor worship was abolished. Constantine, who died in 337 AD, favored Christians and convened the Council of Nicaea (325 AD) to establish the Nicene Creed. While he maintained some ambiguity in his religious policies, he accepted baptism at the end of his life and is considered a saint by the Church. After Constantine, the Church gained increasing influence and power, with the exception of the brief reign of Julian the Apostate (361-363 AD). Theodosius declared Christianity the official religion of the empire, condemned heresies like Arianism (380 AD), and banned all pagan cults (391 AD).
The Emergence of Feudalism
Definition of Feudalism
Feudalism is a political, economic, and social system based on relationships of service and protection (Feudo-vassallàtiques) between a lord and a vassal. It emerged in Europe during the early Middle Ages after the fall of the Western Roman Empire and became established between the 10th and 13th centuries.
Feudalism as a Political and Military System
The collapse of the Roman Empire led to the weakening of royal power and the need to share power between the king and local lords. Lords had full political, economic, and judicial autonomy in their territories (fiefs) and were nominally vassals of the king. However, true vassalage was exercised over commoners (serfs) who provided labor in exchange for goods and protection. Serfs could work the land in exchange for a share of the produce or pay taxes (in cash or kind). In return for the land granted by the king, feudal lords were obligated to provide military aid (Auxilium) and counsel (consilium) to the king. The king retained direct control over a portion of the kingdom (crown lands). The feudal system was vulnerable to wars between nobles and rebellions against the monarchy.
The Revival of Cities and Medieval Trade
The Rebirth of Urban Life
The most significant development in Europe during the High Middle Ages was the revival of urban life. Old Roman cities had only survived in Italy, with the rest of Europe experiencing overwhelming ruralism until after the year 1000. From the 11th century onwards, new cities emerged as merchants and craftsmen established themselves near fortified villages or nuclei. The inhabitants of these new settlements became known as bourgeois.
Bourgeois, Trade, and Crafts
Bourgeois were centers specializing in the production of manufactured goods and the exchange of goods (trade and crafts). Their proliferation reflected the progress of European society in terms of the division of labor. Medieval cities ranged from large, populous centers like Paris, London, and Florence to smaller towns that served as regional markets. The most populated cities in the Christian West were in Italy (Milan, Venice, Florence, Genoa), followed by Paris, London, Bruges, Ghent, and Cologne. The expansion of cities led to the development of craft production and trade.
Guilds and Crafts
Workers in the same profession formed corporations, which initially had religious and mutual aid functions but evolved into associations that defended their interests and ensured the quality of manufactured products (guilds). Each profession had three levels: master, journeyman, and apprentice. The most characteristic industry of the Late Middle Ages was textiles, primarily wool and to a lesser extent linen, cotton, and silk. The production process was often dispersed between the countryside and the city.
Medieval Trade
The growth of manufacturing production was paralleled by the growth of trade, which became necessary in a society that was becoming increasingly specialized. Trade was not limited to transactions between bourgeois and their rural surroundings but also included long-distance trade. This was facilitated by the restoration of peace on the roads, improved infrastructure, and the increased minting of currency from the 12th century onwards. Alongside local (daily) and county (weekly) markets, fairs emerged. Founded by kings or feudal lords, fairs were regular meetings of merchants at pre-established locations and dates. The most important fairs were those of Champagne (located halfway between Flanders and Italy), which served as a point of contact between traders from both regions (Flemish cloth, silk, and spices brought by the Italians). These fairs reached their peak in the 13th century.
The Emergence of the Printing Press
Background
The printing press was preceded by woodcut, a technique for reproducing images and short texts using wood panels. Woodcut was known in China since ancient times, where movable type, essential for printing any number of texts, also appeared. However, the characteristics of Chinese handwriting made it difficult to develop the invention further.
Gutenberg’s Invention
The European printing press was invented sometime between 1420 and 1445, with the invention often attributed to Johannes Gutenberg. The printing press was perfected from the beginning, and its rapid spread demonstrated its ability to meet a need. Before the invention of the printing press, books (incunabula) were a luxury. Between 1445 and 1500, over 30,000 works were printed, with an average of 500 copies per work, resulting in a total of over 15 million copies. During the 16th century, approximately 200,000 works were printed, with a total of nearly 200 million copies. The printing press significantly reduced the cost of books (by a factor of 10). The power of ideas to spread was greatly amplified (e.g., the Reformation of Erasmus and Luther). This led to the emergence of censorship by the Church and the king. Other consequences of the printing press included the decline of copyists and miniaturists, the rise of a new industry with many jobs, and the standardization of spelling and language.
The Discovery of America
Possible Causes
Several factors contributed to the discovery of America, including religious motivations (the desire to spread Christianity) and political motivations (the desire to continue the Reconquista in the Iberian Peninsula). However, economic factors were more important, including the search for commercial benefits, raw materials, slaves, gold, and especially spices (sugar, drugs, dyes, incense, cinnamon, cloves, pepper, ginger, etc.). The high prices of spices were due to intermediaries (Venetians, Arabs, etc.), and the hostility of the Turks made trade routes to the East increasingly difficult.
Christopher Columbus
Christopher Columbus’s origins are uncertain, but he was likely Genoese. The exact location of his grave is also unknown. He was born in 1450 and arrived in Portugal around 1476, where he married and expanded his knowledge. He proposed a westward voyage to the King of Portugal, but the project was rejected because the Portuguese believed Columbus’s calculations were erroneous.
Columbus’s Voyages
Columbus’s expedition departed from Palos de la Frontera on August 3, 1492, with three caravels. After a month’s stopover in the Canary Islands, the voyage lasted 34 days. On December 12, 1492, Columbus arrived in the Bahamas (San Salvador). He then explored the coasts of Cuba (Juana) and Hispaniola, where he lost his flagship, the Santa Maria. With its remains, he built a fort called La Navidad, where he left 39 men to await his return. He returned to the Iberian coast in March 1493 and was received by the Spanish monarchs in Barcelona in April of the same year. While many recognized that a new world had been discovered, Columbus maintained until his death in 1506 that the lands he had reached were part of Asia. The Spanish monarchs provided him with resources for further expeditions, and he was appointed governor, but his conduct led to his imprisonment. He died believing that his services had not been duly rewarded.
Impact of the Discovery
The voyage to America quickly became a relatively accessible and common undertaking, much shorter and less dangerous (taking advantage of favorable winds) than the Portuguese route around Africa. The news of Columbus’s arrival in new lands encouraged the French and English monarchies to explore North America (Cabot, 1497-98, in the service of England; Verrazano, 1524, and Cartier, 1534, in the service of France). The Portuguese accidentally arrived in Brazil in 1500 (Cabral).
The End of the Byzantine Empire
Origins and Rise
The Byzantine Empire originated from the division of the Roman Empire by Theodosius in 395 AD. It took its name from its capital, Constantinople, formerly Byzantium. The empire experienced a period of political, economic, and military growth during the 6th century under the reign of Justinian (527-565 AD), who recovered much of the former Western Roman Empire (North Africa, Italy, and parts of the Iberian Peninsula).
Decline and Fall
The decline of the Byzantine Empire began shortly after Justinian’s reign, coinciding with the rise of Islam. Muslims conquered the Middle East (Syria, Palestine, Egypt between 635 and 642 AD) and penetrated into Anatolia, besieging Constantinople twice (674-678 and 717-718 AD) but failing to conquer it. The Byzantines lost most of Italy (Ravenna fell in 751 AD). Political and religious struggles (Iconoclasm) and the diversion of resources to the Crusades further weakened the empire. However, it survived until the 15th century when the Ottoman Turks finally conquered it, capturing Constantinople in 1453 AD.
The Emergence of the Ottoman Empire
Origins and Expansion
The Turks were a nomadic people originating in Central Asia. The Seljuk Turks, a first wave of Turkish migrants, arrived in the Middle East in the 11th century, converted to Islam, and conquered territories from the Byzantine Empire. Their intolerance towards Christians led to the organization of the Crusades. In the 13th century, other Mongol tribes pushed the Turks from Central Asia towards Anatolia. The Ottoman Turks, named after Osman I (1281-1326 AD), their first ruler, emerged as a powerful force. They embarked on a major territorial expansion at the expense of the Byzantines, establishing their capital at Bursa and soon expanding into Europe (conquering Gallipoli in 1354 AD).
Conquests in the Balkans and Constantinople
The Ottomans gradually conquered Balkan territories, winning the Battle of Kosovo in 1389 AD, conquering Serbia and Bulgaria, and reaching the Danube River. They also expanded eastward, reaching the Euphrates River. Successive crusades organized by European Christians were defeated. The Byzantine Empire was reduced to the city of Constantinople, which resisted for another half-century, partly due to the Ottomans’ conflicts with the Mongols on their eastern border. In 1453 AD, Constantinople fell after a siege, aided by the use of artillery, to Sultan Mehmed II, who made it the capital of the Ottoman Empire, renaming it Istanbul.
Further Expansion and Decline
The Ottomans conquered much of southeastern Europe, reaching the gates of Vienna, which resisted two sieges (1529 and 1683 AD). The Ottoman Empire reached its peak under Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566 AD). Ottoman expansion extended to Arab lands (Mecca, 1538 AD) and North Africa, where they established vassal states (Tripoli, Tunis, Algeria), encouraging Muslim piracy in the Mediterranean. The Ottomans were seen as a threat to Christianity, leading Philip II of Spain to form a grand coalition, the Holy League, with the Pope and Venice. The Battle of Lepanto (October 1571 AD) resulted in an Ottoman defeat and the end of their naval supremacy. The Ottoman Empire began to decline but remained a major power throughout the 17th century.
Commercial Shift: Atlantic vs. Mediterranean
The Rise of the Atlantic
Until the end of the 15th century, the European economy was centered around two main areas: northern Italy and the Netherlands. The geographical discoveries of the Age of Exploration, especially in America, led to significant economic changes. A commercial boom revitalized the European Atlantic coast, as expeditions departed from and goods arrived in Atlantic ports. Lisbon and Seville monopolized trade with the Spanish and Portuguese colonies, while Antwerp became a major distribution center for goods to the rest of Europe. Meanwhile, Mediterranean trade declined due to the Ottoman blockade of the eastern Mediterranean and the activities of Barbary pirates.
Factors Contributing to the Shift
The rise of the Atlantic was not solely due to advancements in transportation but also to the formation of larger state units, which improved domestic trade security and reduced tolls. However, international trade played a greater role, driven by the opening of new continents, population growth (and thus increased demand for products), and the potential for large profits. Within the Atlantic axis, trade with the West Indies (America) surpassed that of the East Indies (Asia). There was a fundamental difference: America provided gold and silver to Europe, while Asia absorbed these precious metals and exported relatively little in return.
Managing Risks in American Trade
To mitigate the risks of American trade (shipwrecks, piracy), maritime insurance and joint-stock companies were developed. Joint-stock companies could better withstand adversity due to their greater financial resources. For example, the Dutch East India Company, founded in 1602, did not distribute profits until 1610, but when it did, the return was 75%.
The American Revolution and the Emergence of the USA
Background
In the mid-18th century, the east coast of North America was under British rule (the Thirteen Colonies). This territory experienced growing commerce, industry, and plantation agriculture, leading to prosperity. From the mid-18th century onwards, Enlightenment ideas began to spread in America through the dissemination of the Encyclopédie, fostering a growing desire for freedom.
Seven Years’ War and Growing Tensions
The Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) between Britain and France-Spain resulted in a British victory thanks to the significant contributions of American colonists. However, from 1763 onwards, the British crown increased pressure on the American colonists. They were required to pay import taxes (from which they had previously been exempt), prohibited from establishing new industries, and restricted from settling beyond the Appalachian Mountains. These measures provoked widespread protests from 1770 onwards.
Boston Tea Party and Escalation of Conflict
In 1773, the Boston Tea Party took place, a protest against British tea taxes. The British responded with harsh repression, including executions, which sparked outrage throughout the colonies. In 1774, the First Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia. Representatives from the Thirteen Colonies issued a Declaration of Rights and demanded the suspension of trade with England until the situation reverted to its pre-1763 status. Colonists organized militias, and clashes with British troops began (Lexington, April 18, 1775).
Declaration of Independence and War
The Second Continental Congress declared the independence of the United States of America from England on July 4, 1776, and formulated the first Bill of Rights (guaranteeing life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness). England refused to recognize this independence and sent troops to quell the rebellion. The American Revolutionary War (1775-1783) ensued. George Washington was appointed commander-in-chief of the Continental Army. Lacking a professional army and weapons, the rebels sought assistance from Britain’s enemies, France and Spain (seeking revenge for their defeat in the Seven Years’ War). France and Spain provided arms and troops and eventually formally entered the war against Britain.
Victory and Peace
Following rebel victories at the battles of Trenton and Princeton (1776), Saratoga (1777), and Yorktown (1781), the Treaty of Paris was signed in 1783. Britain recognized the independence of the USA and ceded all colonized territory up to the Mississippi River (but not Canada). Each of the thirteen colonies became a state with its own laws, forming a federal republic. George Washington became the first president, and the Constitution, drafted by Thomas Jefferson, was adopted in 1787.
Consequences of Independence
For England: The American Revolution represented England’s first major defeat since the Hundred Years’ War and the loss of its Atlantic empire.
For France: France regained some territories but incurred a large royal debt. French volunteers returned with revolutionary ideas.
For Spain: Spain regained territories (Menorca, Florida) but faced the spread of independence ideas in its American colonies.
For the USA: The war had a high human cost (70,000 deaths), but independence was achieved. Loyalists to England emigrated to Canada.
Westward Expansion
Following independence, the USA embarked on an unstoppable westward expansion, known as the “Winning of the West,” eventually reaching the Pacific coast. This expansion involved:
1803: The Louisiana Purchase (the entire Mississippi Valley) from France.
1819: The purchase of Florida from Spain.
1845: The annexation of Texas (independent from Mexico since 1836), leading to the Mexican-American War.
1848: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, incorporating vast Mexican territories north of the Rio Grande (over 2 million km2, including California and Arizona).
1846: The Oregon Treaty with England, establishing the 49th parallel as the border between the USA and British Canada.
1867: The purchase of Alaska from Russia.
1898: The annexation of the Hawaiian Islands.
The French Revolution and its Consequences
Introduction
In 1788, France was under the Ancien Régime, an absolute monarchy ruled by Louis XVI, with a rigid class society. Enlightenment ideas and the success of the American Revolution challenged this system. The economic situation was dire, with poor harvests leading to famine and rising prices, causing discontent and riots. The king was heavily indebted due to expenditures in the American Revolutionary War. Necker, the finance minister, advised the king to tax the nobility and clergy, but this could only be approved by the Estates-General (a medieval parliament). The nobility, unwilling to relinquish their privileges, offered the king a loan, which he refused. He then called for the Estates-General to convene in May 1789.
Moderate Phase (1789-1792)
National Assembly and the Storming of the Bastille
In July 1789, representatives of the Third Estate, dissatisfied with the voting system in the Estates-General, broke away and formed the National Assembly. They moved to a nearby tennis court and swore the Tennis Court Oath, vowing not to disband until they had drafted a constitution for France. Representatives of the clergy and nobility joined them, forming the National Constituent Assembly. Fearing an absolutist reaction, the people of Paris stormed the Bastille (a royal prison) on July 14, 1789, freeing prisoners and seizing weapons. The Assembly created the National Guard (a popular militia) for its protection. Simultaneously, peasant revolts known as the Great Fear swept the countryside. Many nobles emigrated from France.
Abolition of Feudalism and Declaration of Rights
In August 1789, the Assembly approved the abolition of feudal privileges and the nobility (ending the class society) and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (guaranteeing freedom, equality, private property, and the right to resist oppression). The king initially refused to sign these measures.
March on Versailles and Nationalization of Church Property
In October 1789, women marched on Versailles, demanding food and weapons. The king was forced to sign the Assembly’s decrees. Church property, crown lands, and the property of émigrés were nationalized to address the financial crisis. The king was forced to relocate to Paris (Tuileries Palace).
Civil Constitution of the Clergy and Attempted Escape
In July 1790, the Civil Constitution of the Clergy was passed, making the clergy state officials. Monasteries and religious orders were suppressed, and priests and bishops became elected. This measure was largely rejected by the clergy and condemned by the Pope, leading to a conflict between the Church and the state. In June 1791, the king attempted to escape but was arrested in Varennes, damaging the monarchy’s prestige.
Constitution of 1791 and Legislative Assembly
In September 1791, the Constitution of 1791 was adopted, establishing a constitutional monarchy with a separation of powers (executive power for the king, legislative power for the Legislative Assembly, elected by taxpayers). Torture was abolished. The bourgeoisie was largely satisfied with this outcome. Elections for the Legislative Assembly were held based on a property qualification. Political groups emerged: the Right (conservatives, monarchists), the Center (Girondins), and the Left (Montagnards or Jacobins). However, there was a threat of counter-revolution both internally and externally (absolute monarchs supported the émigrés and foreign powers opposed revolutionary France). In April 1792, war broke out against an international coalition (Austria, Prussia, etc.). The National Guard was mobilized, and the Marseillaise was sung by troops from the south.
Radicalization and the Proclamation of the Republic
In July 1792, the Duke of Brunswick issued a manifesto threatening Paris if the royal family was harmed. This led to the radicalization of the masses (sans-culottes). On August 10, 1792, the people stormed the Tuileries Palace, deposing Louis XVI and abolishing the monarchy. The Republic was proclaimed. In September 1792, the French won the Battle of Valmy. The Legislative Assembly was dissolved, and elections based on universal male suffrage were called.
Civil Strife and the Foederati in the Roman Empire
Social and Political Conflicts
Civil strife was a recurring feature of Roman history. Some conflicts were social, such as the Social War (91-89 BC), in which Italian allies fought for Roman citizenship; the wars against Mithridates (88-63 BC); and slave revolts like the First Servile War (136-132 BC) and Spartacus’s uprising (73-71 BC). However, most civil conflicts were power struggles, such as the civil war between Caesar and Pompey (49-46 BC) and the war between Octavian and Mark Antony (32-30 BC). The Year of the Four Emperors (193 AD) saw a war of succession following the death of Commodus. The period of military anarchy (235-284 AD) was also marked by frequent power struggles between aspiring emperors. After the Tetrarchy, Constantine gained power by defeating the armies of Maxentius (312 AD) and Licinius (324 AD).
Bagaudae and the Foederati
From the 4th century onwards, increasing authoritarianism and fiscal pressure led to an exodus from cities to the countryside. Many became settlers on large estates, while others turned to banditry and piracy, joining rebel groups or allying with barbarian invaders. The Bagaudae were a peasant rebel group in Gaul and northern Hispania. The Foederati were Germanic tribes allowed to settle within the Roman Empire’s borders as allies (foederati) from the 4th century onwards. They received annual payments (annonae foederatae) in exchange for defending the empire’s frontiers. In 376 AD, Emperor Valens allowed the Visigoths to settle as foederati, but they rebelled and defeated the Romans at the Battle of Adrianople, where Valens was killed.
The Foedus and its Failure
The foedus was a political contract that obligated the Germanic tribes to provide military assistance to the Roman Empire. In return, they were granted land (hospitalitas), typically 1/3 of the land in use, not ownership. The Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, and Franks became foederati. To ensure compliance, the Germans often handed over their children as hostages to the Romans. This system ultimately failed in the 5th century as the Roman Empire weakened and could no longer control the barbarian tribes.
The Formation of Barbarian Kingdoms and the End of the Western Roman Empire
Germanic Kingdoms
The Germanic foederati established independent kingdoms in the territories they occupied. Their concept of kingship differed significantly from the Roman model (Germanic tribes were composed of free warriors led by an elected chieftain). Relations with the Roman population were often strained due to racial and religious differences (the barbarians were mostly Arian Christians), with the exception of the Frankish kingdom. The major Germanic kingdoms established within the former Western Roman Empire were:
Vandal Kingdom
(429-534 AD). Became foederati in 435 AD and gained sovereign status in 442 AD. After being expelled from Hispania by the Visigoths, they established themselves in North Africa (Carthage), creating a maritime empire and sacking Rome in 455 AD. The Romans (under Belisarius) destroyed the Vandal kingdom in 534 AD, incorporating it into the Byzantine Empire.
Visigothic Kingdom
(419-507 AD, capital Toulouse; 507-711 AD, capital Toledo). Under Euric, they initially established themselves in southern Gaul but entered Hispania to expel the Vandals and Alans. In 507 AD, they were defeated by the Franks at the Battle of Vouillé and expelled from most of Gaul, retaining only Hispania (except for Galicia, which was ruled by the Suebi for a time). The Visigothic kingdom was destroyed by the Muslims in 711 AD.
Frankish Kingdom
Became foederati in 358 AD. Clovis (482-511 AD) united the Frankish tribes and conquered all of Gaul. His conversion to Catholicism in 497 AD facilitated the fusion of Gallo-Roman and Germanic populations, creating a strong and unified kingdom. The Frankish kingdom evolved into the Merovingian and later the Carolingian Empire.
Burgundian Kingdom
(443-534 AD). Ruled by Gundobad, it encompassed the area of present-day Switzerland and Lyon. Conquered by the Franks in 534 AD.
Ostrogothic Kingdom
Ruled by Theodoric the Great, it was established in Italy and the Adriatic region (493-553 AD) after the overthrow of Odoacer. There were tensions between the Ostrogoths and the Roman population due to racial segregation. Rivalry with the Franks led to the kingdom’s destruction by the Byzantines (535-553 AD), who incorporated Italy into their empire. Later, the Lombards (under Alboin) invaded Italy, expelling the Byzantines from the north and establishing a new kingdom (568-774 AD).
The Fall of the Western Roman Empire
The year 476 AD is conventionally considered the definitive end of the Western Roman Empire. In that year, Odoacer, a Germanic mercenary in Roman service, deposed the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and established a kingdom in Italy, sending the imperial regalia to Constantinople. This event marks the beginning of the Early Middle Ages.
Feudalism: Origins and Characteristics
Definition and Origins
Feudalism is a political, economic, and social system based on relationships of service and protection (Feudo-vassallàtiques) between a lord and a vassal. It emerged in Europe during the early Middle Ages after the fall of the Western Roman Empire and became established between the 10th and 13th centuries. The urban crisis and ruralization caused by barbarian invasions during the Late Roman Empire contributed to the emergence of feudal relations. Many free peasants and former urban workers sought protection from powerful landowners, becoming semi-free serfs.
Feudalism as a Political and Military System
The collapse of the Roman Empire led to the weakening of royal power and the need to share power between the king and local lords. Lords had full political, economic, and judicial autonomy in their territories (fiefs) and were nominally vassals of the king. However, true vassalage was exercised over commoners (serfs) who provided labor in exchange for goods and protection. Serfs could work the land in exchange for a share of the produce or pay taxes (in cash or kind). In return for the land granted by the king, feudal lords were obligated to provide military aid (Auxilium) and counsel (consilium) to the king. The king retained direct control over a portion of the kingdom (crown lands). The feudal system was vulnerable to wars between nobles and rebellions against the monarchy.
Feudalism as an Economic System: The Manor and Territorial Lordship
There were three types of land in the feudal system:
1. Allodial Land
Small properties owned by free peasants, located within the lord’s domain. These were few in number and often disappeared during times of hardship, being absorbed by the lord’s estate.
2. Demesne
The best land, owned by the lord. Its produce belonged entirely to the lord, but it was worked by serfs.
3. Serf Land
Plots of land granted to semi-free peasants (serfs). Serfs worked the land but were obligated to:
– Deliver a portion of the annual harvest (census) to the lord.
– Work a certain number of days per week or month on the lord’s demesne (corvée).
– Sometimes work in the lord’s workshops (mills, forges, etc.).
– Pay fees for using these services (e.g., grinding grain).
– Provide military service in times of danger.
– Submit to the lord’s justice, which often included the power of life and death over serfs.
The lord could also collect fines, tolls for using roads or rivers, and other fees. The income earned by the lord from the cultivation of land (demesne and serf land) was known as territorial revenue. The income earned from jurisdictional powers (administration of justice, use of workshops, tolls, etc.) was known as jurisdictional revenue. The total income from both sources was called seigneurial revenue.
Origins of Feudalism
The origins of feudalism can be traced to institutions of the Late Roman Empire and the Germanic world. However, it was during the Carolingian period that feudal relations (feudo-vassallàtiques) took shape. The basic idea was that free men seeking security would commend themselves to more powerful individuals. In return, these lords would grant them benefits, often in the form of land. The basic elements of feudal relations were commendation (an oath of allegiance) and the benefice (also called the fief).
Vassalage and the Ceremony of Homage
A vassal was anyone who freely placed himself under the protection of a more powerful lord, pledging allegiance and expecting a benefice in return. The contract was established through the Ceremony of Homage, which involved the vassal placing his hands between those of the lord, receiving a kiss from the lord, and swearing an oath of mutual loyalty. The lord then granted the vassal a symbolic object representing the benefice (investiture). From that moment on, the lord and vassal were bound to each other. This contract could be broken if either party violated their obligations. Feudal society became consolidated when these commitments became hereditary (they were not initially).
Socioeconomic Structure of Feudal Society
Social Hierarchy
Feudal society was characterized by a rigid social hierarchy (the feudal pyramid). At the top was the king, whose authority was theoretically divine, although in practice, powerful nobles often held more power. The next level consisted of the great feudal lords (dukes, marquises, counts, barons, etc.), the high nobility, who held real power and were obligated to provide auxilium and consilium to the king. Below them were the lesser nobility (knights, squires), who often administered portions of the great fiefs as vassals (subinfeudation). Further down were the knights, professional soldiers who did not hold fiefs. At the base of the pyramid were the serfs (commoners, mostly peasants). The high clergy (bishops, archbishops, abbots) also held significant economic power and owned vast lands.
Rural Society
Feudal society was predominantly rural due to the decline of trade and urban centers. Land was the most valuable asset.
Violent Society
Feudal society was marked by violence, including wars between nobles, aristocratic revolts against the king, brutally suppressed peasant uprisings, attacks from new invaders (Vikings, Magyars, Saracens), and the Crusades.
Estate-Based Society
Feudal society was complex but also simple in its estate-based structure: oratores (clergy), bellatores (lords, nobles, warriors), and laboratores (those who worked, the peasants, who supported the other two estates).
Role of the Church
. theocratic society? Social order dictated by
God legitimation of power. Monopolizer culture (monasteries).
In Spain, the Castella of the high Middle Ages, the war against
Muslims forced to repopulate presura with farmers with free or jurisdictions
privileges (so, no Castella Old feudalism). However, in Catalonia, under
Carolingian influence, if you find enough pure feudalism.
It is curious that from XIII, when he has time to maximum peak
feudalism in Europe, clearly this will be the new lands conquered by
Spanish (and the Mancha, Extremadura, Andalusia), as was entrusted to the repopulation
lords and great military orders, which the landowner to establish a system that has
survived to the present.
THE FIRST WORLD WAR. CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES.
1 .- CAUSES OF THE ‘GREAT WAR’.
In the early twentieth century, growing rivalry between European powers:
a) Between France and Germany for the war of 1870 (Alsace, Lorraine ,…).
b) In the Austro-Hungarian empire and Russia to the Balkan question.
c) Between Britain and Germany by the strong economic and commercial rivalry.
d) And, in general, among all the industrial powers among themselves for the growing
competition for raw materials and markets for their products
industrial, that, … colonial conflicts.
In addition, there are serious problems nationalists:
– The Austro-Hungarian empire (Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs in Bosnia ,…)
– In Russia (Poles, Finns, the Baltic peoples, and peoples of the Caucasus
dasi Central …).
– In Britain (Irish).
These tensions lead to an alliance between the powers series ending
configuring two opposing blocs:
The Triple Alliance or the Central Empires, Germany, empire
Italy and Hungary (*).
The Triple Entente with Britain, France and Russia.
Therefore, between 1900 and 1914 there was a stronger military, a
these countries real arms race known as the Peace Army.
Serbian nationalism in the Balkans (with Russian support in Serbia) will be the immediate cause
or explosive of war, namely latemptat of Sarajevo, where he was killed
larxiduc Franz Ferdinand (heir to Austro-Hungarian empire) and his wife
Gavrilo Princip, a student pro-Serbian nationalist (28 June 1914).
2 .- DEVELOPMENT OF CONFLICT (1914-1918).
– Austrian ultimatum to Serbia (one month). Rejected.
– July 28, declaration of war on Austro-Hungarian empire
Serbia. It launched the alliance system. Russian mobilization.
Mutual declarations of war in the early days from August 1914.
– Germany had designed the Schlieffen Plan (first attack in France
and then in Russia) but gives the expected result.
– There are some changes in the camps: Italy (*), first there
participates, and in 1916 passed the Triple Entente (problems
territorial with the Austrians). Year 1917, entering the U.S., too
lEntesa for lenfonsament ships by U.S. submarines
Germans. Will do the same side of Romania,
Montenegro, Greece and Belgium (attacked by Germany). In contrast,
Ottoman empire (Turkish) and Bulgaria do the Triple Alliance.
Initially, the war presents rapid war of movement, but eventually
be imposed war positions (trenches), or wear (eg Verdun).
Appear deadly effect of new weapons (machine guns, hand grenades, first
aircraft, tanks first, first submarine, poison gas, long-range guns ,…).
We can speak of two war fronts:
– The Western Front (northern France and Belgium). After a first
and rapid German advance until near Paris, and the front stagnation
war positions.
– The Eastern Front (Russia and the Balkans). Wins Austro-German
occupation of Serbia and Romania, the outbreak of the Russian collapse
Revolution of 1917. Russia signed separate peace with Germany.
Despite Russian abandonment of 1917, the U.S. intervention in the war breaks
equilibrium on the Western Front. In late 1918, Germany is considered useless
continue the war because they can not win, and therefore requires a
armistice (peace calls) and ending the war.
3 .- CONSEQUENCES OF THE GREAT WAR.
– Is the concept of total war, hitherto unknown, is
In other words, the whole economy belligerent countries sorienta
exclusively to support the war.
– The figures beat all known records: 60 million mobilized,
8 million deaths, 16 participating nations, …
– Larmistici is formalized in the Treaty of Versailles (Versailles,
Saint Germain, Trianon, Neuilly and Sèvres, signed between the winners and
different countries defeated, involving modification of the map
Europe:
Disappear the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Ottoman (Turkish) and Russian;
which gives rise to the emergence of new independent states: Poland,
Czechoslovakia, the Baltic Republics, Finland, Yugoslavia (in
from Serbia).
Germany, heavily punished in the Treaty of Versailles
lost territories: Alsace and Lorraine (France), Eupen and Malmedy (in
Belgium), the colonies (in France and Britain), territories
in eastern Poland, and will become a republic (the Republic of
Weimar) after suffering a revolution Spartacus. Be declared
guilty of war and must pay large indemnities
much that will affect the economic winners of its economy.
Germany is humiliated at Versailles and is generated in society
German a strong desire for revenge.
-Creation of the League of Nations SDN B)
Russian Revolution, consequences. Lenin to Stalin.
1 .- Czarist Russia.
At the beginning of twentieth century Russia was the most backward country in Europe and still
Danticat regime with a system. Primarily agrarian, little industry. The land
in few hands (nobility, clergy ortodoxe ,…)… much misery among the peasantry
landless, while industrial workers in cities were systematically exploited.
That’s why they struck the revolutionary ideas of the labor movement
(Anarchism, sometimes violent, and Marxism). The Marxists, advocates struggle
Classes and strongest in the cities, founded in 1898 the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party,
but soon this sescindirà two currents:
-Mensheviks (minority), supporters of a bourgeois revolution before
dimplantar socialism.
-Bolsheviks (majority), as do supporters of the socialist revolution, led by
proletariat. Stresses Ulianov Vladimir Ilich (Lenin).
Despite the unfortunate situation in the country, the Tsar saventura wars: 1904-05
Russojaponesa War. Humiliating defeat in Russia, more poverty and misery. This
protests, Bloody Sunday (peaceful demonstration against the winter palace
St. Petersburg and headed by the pope Gapon violently repressed by the
Tsarist police). This causes the extension of a popular uprising, the Revolution of 1905
severely repressed. The Tsar made some timid concession as the creation of a kind
of parliament, the Duma, very controlled, which presents some attempt unsuccessful
land reform (Minister Stolypin).
2 .- the revolutions of 1917.
Despite the precarious economic situation of the country, Russia, alliances
Czar International participates in the First World War (1914-1918). This
causes a huge mobilization of resources and population, which affects more
poverty, hunger and hardship. Moreover, defeat against the Germans. Protests
were more social and February 1917 insurrection breaks out in Petrograd (formerly St.
Petersburg). The Tsar ordered the army repression of the rebels, but the soldiers
refuse to confront the people and join the revolt, is the revolution of February
formed by the Soviets (assemblies or committees of soldiers, workers and peasants).
The Tsar abdicates, and the interim government takes over Prince Livov, taking
prominence the Duma. The government and liberal bourgeois do not want major reforms and
neither wants to leave the world war. So lose the support of the Bolsheviks, who
control many Soviets. Dual power: government and the Soviets.
On 3 April 1917 Lenin arrived in Petrograd from Finland (was exiled to
Switzerland since the Revolution of 1905) and argues that the revolution has to overcome the phase
become bourgeois and the proletariat revolution, proposed the immediate
Out of war and the seizure of power by insurrecional are the theses, April.
Livov lost power and was replaced by Alexis Kerensky, moderate socialist who seeks
major reforms, but not out of the war. This lenfronta Lenin and the Bolsheviks
must flee and hide. Month from August, a Czarist general, Kornilov attempts a coup
of state counter. Kerensky require the Soviets to defeat it. This
prestigiarà the Soviets in Kerensky’s own expense.
Doctubre 10, 1917 the central committee of Lenin’s Bolsheviks accept the thesis
dinsurrecció immediate stand against the continuing collaboration with
Kerensky and the Mensheviks.
25 doctubre (November 7, Western calendar), the sailors of the base
Kronstadt saixequen against the government. Simultaneously, elements Bolsheviks
organized (Red Guard) took the strategic places of the capital and raided the palace
winter. Kerensky flees.
The Bolsheviks, already in power, peace with Germany, and decided, among other
things:
– Divide the land among the peasants.
– Control of factories by workers.
– State control of the economy.
The Bolsheviks created a strong state, controlled by a single party: the communist party, and
sinstaura the dictatorship of the proletariat to defend Capitalism. Lenin is
as the leader of the new state.
3 .- THE CONSOLIDATION OF THE REVOLUTION. Lenin to Stalin.
– The country changed its name in 1922, going up danomenar Russian Empire
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).
– The early years are very bad, because once the
The Tsarist PGM (white Russians) with the aid of the powers
capitalists (USA, UK ,…) trying to regain power and end the
first socialist state in the world. In this civil war are
defeated by the new Red Army.
– Once the war, Lenin decided to remove the so called
war communism and allow some economic freedom for
improving living conditions; is the NEP (new policy
economic).
– After the death of Lenin (1924), struggling for power Leon Trotsky
(Red lexèrcit organizer and supporter of the global extension
revolution) and Stalin. The latter is done with the power and eliminates all
their rivals. Trotsky must flee (to Mexico to be assessinat
agents of Stalin in 1940).
– Stalin introduces a strong personal dictatorship with absolute control
society (the Red Tsar). Ends with the NEP to avoid the danger
return of capitalism and establishing policy plans
five-year destined for industrialization and modernization
Lurs. In thirty years will be a bloody internal debugging Match
communist (the famous porgues) intervendrà in favor of the government
Republicans during the Spanish Civil War and lasted most of
effort in the defeat of fascism during the SGM. After
his death in 1953, his figure will be questioned, and leaders
Soviets begin the process of Stalinization.
4 .- IMPLICATIONS OF THE REVOLUTION.
-Internal: – Disappearance of Russian empire and the establishment of a system of nature
socialist-inspired Marxism, Lurs with party dictatorship and
only.
– The economy is going, then, capitalism socialism
disappearing private property and the state controlling all
aspects of the economy.
– External: – Russia signed separate peace with Germany, leaving the
allies of the Triple Entente. Does the Eastern Front in WWI.
– For the first time in history and the Marxist theory of revolution
seizure of power by the proletarian masses to eliminate the
Capitalism (which seemed a utopia) are implemented
successfully in a country which, moreover, is the largest on Earth. Cund
lexemple and there is immediate revolutionary attempts in Germany
(Spartacus uprising) and Hungary, but these fail.
– This causes fear among global capitalism ,…. intervention
military capitalist powers in the post-Civil War
revolution to make it fail.
– The Soviet leaders are organizing the Third International (Comintern)
lescissió involved in the Marxist Socialists (pro-
participation in democratic institutions) and Communists,
supporters of the revolution and take power by force.
– Creates communist parties around the world, causing panic among
the bourgeoisie, not in duptarà support to stop the fascists
revolutionary threat.
– After the SGM, will become a superpower Lurs
political and military leader of the Communist world, along with other
also countries where the revolution will triumph (China, 1949