The Rise and Fall of Empires: From Tsarist Russia to the Spanish Revolution
1. The Russian Revolution (1917)
Characteristics of Tsarist Russia
At the dawn of the 20th century, Russia’s economy lagged, both industrially and agriculturally. An aristocratic society dominated the largely agrarian population, which endured harsh living conditions. Resentment simmered against the autocratic Tsarist regime, where the Tsar wielded absolute power over political life, religion, education, the military, and the economic system.
Various underground (illegal) parties opposed Tsarist rule. In 1905, councils representing workers, known as Soviets (similar to unions), emerged. The most influential party was the Social Democrat, comprised of two factions: the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks.
- The Mensheviks: Moderates who favored a non-violent revolution.
- The Bolsheviks: Supporters of a radical revolution, following the ideology of their founder, Lenin.
The Tsar’s attempts to appease the populace with liberal ideas proved insufficient against the backdrop of food shortages and economic hardship. Peasant revolts ensued, culminating in the Russian Revolution.
Development
The Revolution unfolded in two phases, beginning in February 1917.
Phase 1: Tsar Nicholas II abdicated, ceding power to a provisional government led by the Menshevik Kerensky. The Tsarist regime was abolished, and a republic was proclaimed, granting freedoms of expression and the right to strike. However, widespread desertions from the army and ongoing peasant revolts, fueled by Lenin’s slogan “All power to the Soviets,” shifted support from the Mensheviks to the Bolsheviks.
Phase 2: In October 1917, the Bolshevik Red Guard stormed the provisional government headquarters, seizing power. The Bolsheviks abolished private property and redistributed uncultivated land to the workers.
2. The Formation of the Soviet Union
The Red Army’s victory in 1920 solidified the Bolshevik revolution and their dominance, leading to the party’s renaming as the Communist Party. In 1921, the New Economic Policy (NEP) aimed to revitalize the post-Tsarist economy. All political parties except the Communist Party were banned, establishing a single-party state.
In 1922, the Soviet Union was established, a communist state without private property, posing a direct challenge to the capitalist U.S. and Europe. Following Lenin’s death in 1924, Stalin rose to power in 1929. Continuing Lenin’s policies, Stalin strengthened communism through a reign of terror, using purges to eliminate opposition.
Stalin consolidated communist control and accelerated industrialization and agricultural collectivization through five-year plans and the creation of Collectives. These measures propelled Russia’s economic growth, making it a major global power.
3. The Interwar Period (1919-1939)
After World War I, initial economic growth and improved living standards gave way to the devastating 1929 crisis. This crisis fueled the rise of authoritarian regimes, most notably:
- Spain: Francisco Franco
- Italy: Benito Mussolini (Fascism)
- Germany: Adolf Hitler (National Socialism/Nazism)
The U.S. emerged from World War I as a global power, providing loans to struggling European nations. The “Roaring Twenties” witnessed a period of prosperity, but the 1929 stock market crash triggered bank failures, business closures, and soaring unemployment.
European countries responded with economic nationalism and autarky (self-sufficiency). Militarization offered employment, particularly in Germany, Italy, and Japan. Discontent with the post-war map drawn by the League of Nations fueled nationalist movements in Germany, Italy, and Austria, contributing to rising revolutionary sentiments across Europe.
4. The Development of Fascism and Nazism
Emerging in Italy and Germany, respectively, Fascism and Nazism shared common traits despite their differences. Both were born from post-World War I frustration and embraced anti-democratic, pro-dictatorship stances, with Mussolini leading in Italy and Hitler in Germany.
Both ideologies were anti-communist, maintained single-party rule, and employed violence against opposition. They implemented strict labor laws and espoused anti-Semitism. Hitler further asserted the superiority of the Aryan race.
5. Fascist Italy
World War I’s aftermath devastated Italy’s economy, leading to debt, inflation, and unemployment. Socialist and communist-influenced demonstrations erupted in agriculture and industry.
Mussolini, the Fascist leader, promised to suppress these movements and reclaim territories lost after the Treaty of Versailles. In October 1922, the Fascists orchestrated the March on Rome, pressuring King Victor Emmanuel III to grant them power.
6. National Socialism (Nazism)
Founded in 1918, the Nazi Party aimed to assert Aryan racial superiority, avenge Germany’s humiliation after World War I, and achieve territorial expansion through Pan-Germanism. Hitler gained support by exploiting anxieties about communism. By 1934, backed by the ruling classes and using violence, Hitler seized power.
Fascism and Nazism shared anti-communist, anti-Semitic, and expansionist tendencies. Nazism uniquely promoted Pan-Germanism.
7. World War II (1939-1945)
Causes
Remote causes include the 1929 economic crisis and the aggressive policies of Germany, Italy, and Japan. Hitler’s rearmament violated the Treaty of Versailles, but Western powers (Britain and France) initially tolerated it, viewing Hitler as a bulwark against Soviet communism.
The Spanish Civil War (1936), with German and Italian intervention supporting Franco, further escalated tensions. Germany’s annexation of Austria and parts of Czechoslovakia drew protests but not decisive action from the West.
The proximate cause of the war was Germany’s invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939. Bound by treaty obligations, Britain and France declared war on Germany.
Development
The war’s development can be divided into two stages: German advances followed by Allied resurgence and victory.
German Advance: In the first two years, Germany conquered Denmark, Norway, Holland, and Belgium. Using Blitzkrieg tactics with armored vehicles and modern aircraft, Germany swiftly defeated France, establishing a puppet government. After failing to subdue Britain despite intensive bombing, Hitler turned his attention to Russia in 1941, seeking resources. However, the harsh Russian winter stalled the German advance.
Development – Second Stage
Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor in late 1941 prompted the U.S. to enter the war. This, coupled with Germany’s setbacks in Russia, marked a turning point in favor of the Allies.
American victories in the Pacific and Anglo-American successes in North Africa, defeating Rommel, reversed the German advance. Three key events hastened the war’s end:
- The Soviet victory at Stalingrad in late 1943.
- The Normandy landings in 1944.
- The Soviet advance through Eastern Europe towards Berlin.
On May 8, 1945, Germany surrendered unconditionally after the Allied occupation of Berlin, coinciding with Hitler’s suicide. The U.S. atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 forced Japan’s surrender, ending World War II.
8. Consequences
World War II’s consequences were far-reaching, with over 50 million deaths, the Holocaust, significant territorial changes, and widespread devastation. Germany was divided into four occupation zones (Soviet, British, American, and French), leading to the creation of East and West Germany until 1990.
Japan lost its colonial empire. The U.S. emerged as a superpower. The United Nations (UN) was founded in 1945 to maintain international peace and security, promoting human rights, self-determination, and international cooperation through agencies like the WHO and ILO.
The UN’s early challenges included managing the Cold War rivalry between the U.S. and the Soviet Union and preventing another global conflict.
9. Pablo Ruiz Picasso (Life and Work)
Born in Malaga in 1881 and died in 1973, Picasso moved to Barcelona at a young age, where his father taught art. Influenced by Gaudí and exposed to social concerns and anarchist circles, Picasso’s early work focused on marginalized figures like alcoholics and prostitutes, characteristic of his Blue Period (1901-1905).
- Blue Period (1901-1905): Settling in Paris in 1900, Picasso drew inspiration from Impressionists, particularly Cézanne. His Blue Period paintings, dominated by blue hues, depicted themes of human suffering and poverty.
- Rose Period: From 1905, Picasso adopted lighter colors, depicting circus performers and other wandering figures, while maintaining his focus on social themes.
- Cubism: Influenced by Cézanne, Picasso’s Les Demoiselles d’Avignon (1907) marked a shift towards Cubism. This period, lasting until 1914, featured fragmented forms, monochrome palettes, and the incorporation of non-traditional materials like printed letters and newspapers.
- Realism (1917-1925): Picasso’s work during this period, including set designs for ballets, emphasized realism and elegant line drawings.
- Surrealism (1925 onwards): A prolific artist, Picasso explored the horrors of war and social crises in his Surrealist phase. Working in ceramics and sculpture, he embraced distorted forms and dreamlike imagery. Guernica, depicting the bombing of the Spanish city, stands as a powerful anti-war statement.
10. The Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814)
Causes
By the late 18th century, the Spanish monarchy under Charles IV faced challenges from the French Revolution’s influence and a deepening economic crisis. The defeat at Trafalgar in 1805 weakened Spain further. Napoleon’s Continental Blockade against Britain aimed to isolate the British economically. In 1807, Napoleon, suspecting Portuguese assistance to Britain, sought passage through Spain to invade Portugal.
In 1808, French forces kidnapped Charles IV and Ferdinand VII. Napoleon installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as king of Spain, triggering widespread resistance. Provincial and central juntas formed to oppose French rule and organize resistance.
Development
The war involved three main aspects: popular resistance, sieges, and guerrilla warfare. Spanish forces initially defeated the French at Bailén. Britain intervened, aiding Spain and Portugal against France. In 1812, the Duke of Wellington, leading Anglo-Spanish-Portuguese forces, defeated the French at Salamanca, Vitoria, and San Marcial, forcing the French withdrawal in 1814.
11. Joseph Bonaparte and the Cortes of Cádiz
Joseph Bonaparte aimed to introduce Enlightenment ideals and reforms, including freedom of the press, abolition of torture, and the Inquisition. In 1810, the Cortes of Cádiz convened, recognizing Ferdinand VII as the rightful king. Two factions emerged: absolutists, favoring the crown’s absolute power, and liberals, advocating for a constitutional monarchy.
The 1812 Constitution established a constitutional monarchy with national sovereignty, a parliament elected by census suffrage, and separation of powers. It also enshrined liberal principles like freedom of the press and education reforms. Disentailment, the expropriation of church and public lands, aimed to address economic issues.
12. Goya: Life and Work
Francisco de Goya y Lucientes achieved fame and success as a painter. His portraits of Spanish aristocracy and intellectuals, including Floridablanca, Moratín, Jovellanos, and the Duchess of Alba, captured the subjects’ personalities and attitudes.
Goya also depicted popular themes, reflecting the joys and sorrows of everyday life in Madrid. A bullfighting enthusiast, he created numerous works on the subject.
13. The War of Independence as Seen by Goya
The war profoundly impacted Goya’s artistic style. Despite initial French sympathies, he became critical of the war’s horrors, creating The Disasters of War series, which condemned violence. The Second of May 1808 and The Third of May 1808 depict the popular uprising against French occupation. The Colossus symbolizes Spanish resistance against Napoleon. Haunted by his liberal views, Goya self-exiled to France, dying in Bordeaux in 1828.
14. Ferdinand VII: The Return to Absolutism
Ferdinand VII’s reign comprised three phases: the Absolutist Sexenio (1814-1820), the Liberal Triennium (1820-1823), and the Ominous Decade (1823-1833).
Absolutist Sexenio: Upon his return in 1814, Ferdinand rejected the 1812 Constitution, restoring absolutist rule with support from the military, nobility, and church. He repealed liberal reforms and persecuted liberals. The economy declined due to the loss of American colonies and tax burdens on the peasantry.
Liberal Triennium: The 1820 Riego revolt forced Ferdinand to accept the 1812 Constitution. Divisions among liberals (moderates vs. exalted) and economic woes weakened the liberal government. The Holy Alliance intervened, sending the “Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis” to restore Ferdinand’s absolute power in 1823.
Ominous Decade: Ferdinand’s restored absolutism failed to address the ongoing social and economic crises. Opposition from absolutists, the church, and liberals hindered reforms. The revolt of the Agraviados in Catalonia further destabilized the kingdom.
15. The Succession Problem of Ferdinand VII
Lacking a male heir, Ferdinand’s succession became problematic. The Salic Law prevented female inheritance, favoring his brother Carlos. However, Ferdinand repealed the Salic Law with the Pragmatic Sanction, designating his daughter Isabella as heir. This sparked conflict between Carlists (supporting Carlos) and Cristinos (supporting Isabella and her mother Maria Cristina), leading to the Carlist Wars.
16. The Introduction of Liberalism
Upon Ferdinand’s death, the struggle between liberalism and absolutism continued. Liberals aimed to dismantle the old regime’s class-based society. Opposition came from the crown, nobility, church, and some peasants affected by disentailment. Liberals found support among wealthy businessmen and non-privileged professionals and military. Divisions emerged within liberalism between moderates (favoring stronger monarchy) and progressives (advocating for reduced royal power).
17. The Carlist Wars
While the immediate cause was the succession dispute, the Carlist Wars (1833-1839) represented a broader conflict between liberal reforms and the old order. Carlists included those threatened by liberal changes, while Queen Isabella II enjoyed support from Cristinos, who ultimately prevailed.
18. The Regency of Maria Cristina (1833-1840)
Needing support against the Carlists, Maria Cristina sought alliances with moderate liberals. Martínez de la Rosa’s government enacted the Royal Statute (1834), granting limited power to an elected parliament while maintaining royal control. Progressive liberals opposed this, leading to revolutionary movements. Mendizábal’s disentailment laws aimed to finance the war and weaken the church’s support for the Carlists. The 1837 Constitution established a constitutional monarchy with census suffrage and a bicameral parliament.
19. The Regency of Espartero (1840-1843)
Espartero’s regency was marked by divisions between moderate and progressive liberals and growing republican sentiment. Espartero’s authoritarian rule led to opposition, culminating in General Narváez’s uprising, which forced Espartero into exile.
20. The Reign of Isabella II (1843-1868) – Moderate Decade
The first decade of Isabella II’s reign was dominated by moderates, led by Narváez and Bravo Murillo. The 1845 Constitution established a bicameral system with limited suffrage and strong royal powers. Reforms included tax normalization, educational restructuring, and the creation of the Civil Guard. An agreement with the Holy See addressed the issue of disentailment.
21. The Reign of Isabella II – Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)
Following the Vicalvarada uprising, progressives gained power under Espartero. Further disentailment and economic reforms failed to address the growing economic crisis, leading to protests and unrest.
22. The Return of the Moderates (1856-1868)
The failure of progressive policies and growing opposition led to the moderates’ return to power and the restoration of the 1845 Constitution. Initial economic stability fueled by public works and industrial development gave way to renewed crisis by 1866, culminating in the overthrow of Isabella II in 1868.
23. The Democratic Sexenio (1868-1874)
This period saw Spain’s first democratic constitution and the establishment of a republic. The 1869 Constitution introduced universal male suffrage, freedom of the press, and a bicameral parliament. Amadeo I of Savoy was briefly king, but his rule lacked popular support.