The Rise and Fall of Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship (1923-1930)
The Primo de Rivera Dictatorship (1923-1930)
The Coup and Early Stages
In September 1923, General Miguel Primo de Rivera launched a successful coup, swiftly gaining the support of King Alfonso XIII. This ushered in a dictatorship that lasted from 1923 to 1930, intertwining the monarchy’s fate with that of the dictator. This alliance would endure until April 1931, when the Second Republic was proclaimed. Primo de Rivera presented himself as the nation’s savior, an “iron surgeon” poised to excise its ills. His paternalistic approach sometimes bordered on despotism. His military background instilled in him a strong sense of machismo, hierarchy, and discipline. While admiring science and culture, he paradoxically disdained intellectuals. His ultimate failure lay in his inability to modernize Spain’s traditional oligarchic liberalism.
Primo de Rivera secured the support of key generals, including the Duke of Tetuan, for his coup. When King Alfonso XIII rejected Prime Minister García Prieto’s demands, the military rebels forced the government’s resignation. The king then summoned Primo de Rivera to form a new government. Upon his appointment, the dictator declared his intent to rid Spain of “professional politicians” and implement economic and social reforms.
The African military, the Church, the aristocracy, the bourgeoisie, the press, and the Catalan bourgeoisie initially welcomed the dictator. Opposition arose primarily from the Communist Party and the CNT, whose strikes proved largely ineffective. The Spanish Socialist Party (PSOE) and the UGT initially refrained from attacking the new regime, which allowed socialist newspapers to continue publishing and guaranteed the operation of socialist centers. Both even collaborated with the regime, with Largo Caballero appointed to the Council of State. However, by 1929, the Socialists distanced themselves as the dictatorship faltered.
The Military Directorate and Political Maneuvering
Primo de Rivera’s military directorate consisted of eight generals and an admiral. The dictator emphasized his subservience to the king, linking their destinies. With a distinctly conservative ideology, he aimed to resolve issues decisively, acting as the promised “iron surgeon” to restore order. He declared a state of war, replaced provincial governors with military appointees, suppressed dissent, imprisoned opponents and rioters, suspended the constitution, banned political parties, and disregarded the courts. Attacks and strikes decreased, bringing a semblance of calm to cities like Barcelona and Bilbao.
Having justified his coup by denouncing corrupt politicians, the dictator needed to offer an alternative. He established the Patriotic Union, an apolitical party intended to manage political and administrative affairs. Lacking a clear ideology, it attracted members of the oligarchy but, as a creation of an authoritarian regime, enjoyed little popular support and dissolved with the dictatorship. Primo de Rivera also created the National Assembly, a body designed to mimic a parliament. However, the military regime lacked the political experience to govern effectively.
The Rif War and its Aftermath
Pacifying the Rif territory, a Spanish protectorate, had been a persistent challenge since the early 20th century. Primo de Rivera initially favored abandoning the territory, observing the escalating tensions between the military and the Africanist officers. He recognized the financial burden of maintaining troops there and the working class’s opposition to the Moroccan deployments, recalling the Tragic Week of 1909, sparked by the embarkation of recruits in Barcelona. The Annual disaster further exposed the army’s ineptitude in Africa, strengthening Primo de Rivera’s defeatist stance. Upon assuming power, he initiated troop withdrawals and appeasement efforts. However, protests from the Africanist military, including Franco, demanded an offensive against the rebel leader Abd el-Krim.
When Abd el-Krim attacked the French protectorate, France sought Primo de Rivera’s assistance. The dictator orchestrated the Alhucemas landing, routing the rebels and dividing their territory, ultimately forcing Abd el-Krim to sue for peace. This victory boosted his standing with the Africanist military. He expanded the professional troops (Legion and Regulars) in Africa, replacing conscripted peninsular soldiers. The success in Africa bolstered the regime, leading to a new civilian government (1925-1930).
Economic and Social Policies
Inspired by Italian fascism, Primo de Rivera believed the state should play a leading role in the economy and society. He advocated for military hierarchy and the organization of social bodies into units (families, municipalities, and professional organizations). He created the National Corporate Organization, a quasi-union structure representing various trades grouped into local, provincial, and national committees. He also promoted joint employer-worker committees to address labor issues, aiming to enhance job stability. New schools were also established.
The state sought funds for improvements through government bonds issued by Calvo Sotelo. A proposed tax reform faced resistance from the wealthy and was not implemented. A public works program modernized the road network, expanded water systems and irrigation, and electrified some railway lines.
A monopolistic policy led to the creation of CAMPSA, controlling oil imports, refining, and distribution. Granting monopolies, such as the telephone concession to ITT, drew criticism. Protectionist policies restricted imports, and the National Economic Council regulated new industries.
The dictator and the Minister of Labor pursued paternalistic social policies, introducing improvements like insurance, maternity benefits for large families, and “affordable housing” aimed at relocating families from slums.
The Downfall of the Dictatorship
Over six years, discontent grew, exacerbated by the dictator’s declining health. His relatively lenient approach, allowing some political activity and freedom of expression, ultimately failed to quell opposition. Liberals and conservatives plotted against him, seeking the army’s support. Republicans, led by Manuel Azaña, mounted a strong opposition. The Catalan bourgeoisie grew disillusioned by the ban on Catalan in churches and official settings, pushing many towards republicanism. Intellectuals like Valle Inclán and Azorín criticized the regime. Universities became centers of protest, with closures prompted by disputes over degree approvals for Catholic institutions and academic freedom. Communists and anarchists faced repression. Even the Church showed limited sympathy, reacting to the perceived scandals of the general staff. Tensions arose within the army over promotions based on merit, with the king siding with the dictator against dissenting officers, further fueling republican sentiment. Facing mounting opposition, Primo de Rivera resigned.
The Transition to the Second Republic
Following Primo de Rivera’s resignation, King Alfonso XIII appointed General Berenguer, known for his role in the Annual disaster, as Prime Minister. Berenguer aimed to restore the 1876 constitution and return to constitutional legality, calling for general elections. Monarchical support dwindled as opposition surged with the lifting of censorship. The economic situation deteriorated, marked by crisis, strikes, and unrest. The middle classes, drawn to the republican ideal, began to consider alternative forms of government. Republicanism gained traction, fueled by intellectual criticism and the abandonment of the monarchy by former supporters.
In 1930, opposition parties (Republicans, Socialists, Catalan nationalists, and Galician autonomists, with support from some within the army) signed the Pact of San Sebastian, forming a revolutionary committee to overthrow the monarchy. The government, dubbed the “soft dictatorship,” proved unable to respond effectively. A republican “shadow government” began to coalesce at the Ateneo de Madrid. In December, a failed military uprising in Jaca, led by Captains Fermín Galán and Ángel García Hernández, aimed to proclaim the Republic but ended in their execution.
In early 1931, a new government called for municipal elections, the first in eight years, effectively framing them as a referendum on the monarchy. Held on April 12, the elections saw monarchists secure more councilors overall due to rural support. However, republicans triumphed in 41 provincial capitals and other major cities. The king sought the support of General Sanjurjo, head of the Civil Guard, but Sanjurjo instead ensured the royal family’s safe passage to the border. The king went into exile, followed by his family, marking the end of the monarchy and the beginning of the Second Republic.