The Rise and Fall of Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship (1923-1930)
Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship (1923-1931)
The Failure of Parliamentary Monarchy and the Coup
The strike of 1917 triggered a political crisis, marked by short-lived Conservative and Liberal governments. The assassination of Eduardo Dato in 1921 fueled calls for a strong hand to address the country’s problems, including social unrest exemplified by the anarchist agitation in Catalonia and the “Trienio Bolchevique” in Andalusia. Widespread strikes, like the “Canadian” strike, disrupted major cities, turning them into battlegrounds between employers and anarchists. The disastrous Battle of Annual (1921) in Morocco further destabilized the nation. The subsequent “Picasso Dossier” investigation implicated even the King and the military. Amidst this turmoil, General Primo de Rivera launched a coup in 1923, backed by the army and the Crown, initiating a six-year dictatorship (1923-1929).
The coup was justified as a necessary response to a discredited constitutional system and the threat of social revolution. Upon seizing power, Primo de Rivera vowed to cleanse the country of corrupt politicians, quell social unrest, and safeguard national unity. The dictatorship unfolded in two phases: the Military Directorate (1923-1925), presented as a temporary fix, and the Civil Directorate (1926-1930), aimed at institutionalizing the regime and prioritizing economic and social issues.
Policies and International Context
The dictatorship dissolved the Cortes, banned political parties and trade unions, imposed press censorship, and suppressed anarchist movements. The Military Directorate, composed of military ministers, implemented a Municipal and Provincial Statute, replacing elected councils with boards of notables, effectively substituting one form of political control for another. The Unión Patriótica (1924), a party intended to garner support for the regime, failed to gain traction. In 1925, the Civil Directorate, with civilian ministers, established the National Consultative Assembly, further sidelining universal suffrage.
A major achievement of the dictatorship was the resolution of the Moroccan conflict. While opinions on continuing the war were divided, Abd-el-Krim’s attack on the French protectorate in 1924 prompted joint Franco-Spanish action, leading to Abd-el-Krim’s surrender and exile in 1927, effectively ending the conflict.
Socially, the dictatorship aimed to quell unrest by integrating radical elements into moderate labor movements. The National Cooperative Organization regulated industrial relations through Joint Committees of employers and workers, benefiting those who cooperated while persecuting the CNT and UGT. The regime also established vocational and primary schools to meet industrial labor demands.
Economically, the dictatorship adopted an interventionist and protectionist approach, promoting infrastructure development through public works projects. State aid was granted to domestic industries lacking capital. However, granting monopolies, such as to the Compañía Telefónica Nacional de España and CAMPSA, led to a growing budget deficit and government borrowing.
Opposition to the dictatorship came from various fronts: dynastic party leaders, Republicans, anarchists, the national bourgeoisie, and eventually the PSOE. Republicans formed alliances advocating for a republic. Intellectuals like Unamuno and Ortega y Gasset voiced their dissent. Anarchists, divided between moderate and radical factions (including the FAI), employed insurrection and terrorism. Socialists, initially collaborating with the regime’s committees, later shifted towards republicanism. The Catalan bourgeoisie opposed Primo de Rivera’s anti-nationalist policies. Even within the army, opposition grew, culminating in the failed Sanjuanada coup attempt of 1926.
The Fall of the Dictatorship and the Monarchy
By 1929, the dictatorship faced mounting challenges. Socialist opposition intensified, the economic situation worsened due to the 1929 crisis, and support within the military dwindled. Primo de Rivera, weakened by illness, resigned in January 1930 and went into exile, where he died shortly after. General Berenguer, his successor, promised a return to constitutional normality. However, fearing elections that might link him to the dictatorship, the King hesitated, leading to public discontent with what was termed the “dictablanda” (soft dictatorship).
The opposition, including Republicans, Catalan nationalists, and Socialists, signed the Pact of San Sebastian (1930), pledging to end the monarchy and establish a republican committee to serve as a provisional government. A failed military uprising in Jaca against the republic followed. Berenguer resigned, and Admiral Aznar, the last monarchist prime minister, proposed elections. Alfonso XIII, however, opted for municipal elections, effectively framing them as a referendum on the monarchy.
The election results were mixed. While monarchists secured more councilors overall, Republicans dominated major cities. Following the results in cities like Oviedo, Seville, Valencia, Barcelona, and Eibar, the Republic was proclaimed. Alfonso XIII suspended the monarchy and left the country. In Madrid, the Republican Revolutionary Committee proclaimed the Second Republic, forming a provisional government comprising right-wing and left-wing Republicans, Radicals, Catalan and Galician nationalists, and Socialists.