The Rise and Fall of Spanish Monarchs: Charles I & Philip II
Charles I (1516-1556)
Domestic Policy
Charles I’s reign began with the Revolt of the Comuneros in Castile (1520-1522), nationalist and anti-authoritarian riots fueled by resentment towards the foreign king’s unfamiliarity with Castilian customs. Similar antinobility riots, known as the Germanies, erupted in Valencia and Mallorca.
Imperial Policy
Charles maintained alliances with Portugal and England. Hostilities with France arose when Francis I invaded Milan and Navarre, culminating in the Peace of Cambray (1529), where Charles ceded Burgundy and Francis relinquished Milan. The Ottoman Empire’s advance to Vienna prompted Charles to contain Turkish pressure and crack down on Mediterranean pirate bases, including Tunisia. His attempts to reconcile Catholics and Protestants failed, leading to the Schmalkaldic War (1546-1547). Despite victory at Mühlberg, Charles eventually conceded religious freedom to German princes before abdicating in 1556, leaving the Empire and Habsburg lands to his brother Ferdinand, and Spain, Burgundy, and the Netherlands to his son Philip.
Philip II (1556-1598)
Foreign Policy
Philip’s rivalry with France saw victory at St. Quentin (1557) and a peace treaty. Internal French issues eased tensions. The Battle of Lepanto (1571) marked the end of the Ottoman threat in the Mediterranean. Flanders’ fight for autonomy led to war with England, France, and German Protestants. Philip claimed the Portuguese throne in 1580, adding Portugal’s possessions to his empire. The Spanish Armada’s defeat by England in 1588 was attributed to the Spanish fleet’s technical inferiority.
Domestic Policy
The Morisco Revolt in the Alpujarras (1568-1571), protesting discrimination, resulted in their deportation and dispersal. Conflict arose in Aragon when the chief justice refused to surrender a suspected assassin. Philip also confronted mainland Protestants, with the Inquisition prosecuting Lutherans.
The Crisis of the Ancien Régime and the Rise of Liberalism
The Ancien Régime’s decline stemmed from:
- The bourgeoisie’s growth in wealth and desire for political power and an egalitarian society.
- Population growth outpacing food production, leading to famines and revolutions.
- Enlightenment ideology advocating for the end of absolute monarchy and a more egalitarian society with citizen participation.
The Napoleonic Empire
Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power, becoming First Consul, then Consul for Life, and finally Emperor in 1804. His key priorities included:
- Domestic Policy: He implemented the Civil Code, establishing private property and equality before the law, and reformed education.
- Foreign Policy: Napoleon expanded his empire across Europe, defeating Austria, Prussia, and Russia, but not Britain, which prompted the Continental Blockade. Defeated in 1813 at Leipzig, Napoleon was exiled and the Bourbon monarchy restored. His return to power (Hundred Days) ended with defeat at Waterloo (1815) and exile to St. Helena. Napoleon’s conquests spread revolutionary ideals across Europe, fueling further revolutionary waves in 1820, 1830, and 1848, contributing to liberal movements’ triumph.
Main Stages of the Reconquista
From the mid-11th century, Christian kingdoms expanded into Muslim territory, facilitated by the disintegration of the Caliphate of Córdoba into fragmented Taifa kingdoms. The Christian kingdoms’ economies revived through parias payments and the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela. Alfonso VI captured Toledo in 1085, and Alfonso I took Zaragoza in 1118. The 12th century saw the arrival of the Almoravids and Almohads, sparking the Reconquista, a movement to reclaim Spain from Muslim rule. Military orders were established, and the victory at Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) opened the way for expansion into Andalusia. In the first half of the 13th century, Portugal reached the Algarve, Ferdinand III conquered the Guadalquivir valley and Murcia, and James I took Valencia and Mallorca, leaving only Granada under Muslim rule until its conquest by the Catholic Monarchs in 1492.