The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire: A Historical Overview
The Mythological and Historical Origins of Rome
Mythological Origin
According to the legend of Romulus and Remus, Rome was founded in 753 BC by Romulus, son of the god Mars and a descendant of the Trojan hero Aeneas. Romulus and his twin brother Remus were thrown into the Tiber River by their uncle, the king of Alba Longa, who had usurped the throne and wanted to eliminate them. A she-wolf rescued and fed the twins until they were found by a peasant couple who raised them.
Historical Source
Merchants and fugitives populated early Rome and formed families, even kidnapping Sabine women to establish a society. Rome’s prosperity from 500 to 265 BC was based on an agricultural economy, with favorable weather conditions. Around 800 BC, a new commercial mentality emerged, greatly benefiting the city’s economic progress. Trade facilitated connections with other peoples, allowing for the export and exchange of products.
Monarchy (753-509 BC)
The monarchy began with Romulus, who ruled from 753 to 715 BC. Legend says he murdered his brother Remus when Remus crossed the city limits. The monarchy followed a structure of God -> King -> People.
End of the Monarchy
The monarchy ended with Tarquin the Proud, the seventh king of Rome. He is said to have murdered the sixth king, Servius Tullius, abolished constitutional reforms, and attempted to establish a despotic government. He was expelled from Rome when his son, Sextus Tarquinius, raped and killed Lucretia, the wife of the king’s nephew. Tarquin was dethroned and exiled after a popular revolt, leading to the establishment of the Roman Republic.
Republic (509-27 BC)
The Republic began with the expulsion of the last Roman king. Rome started absorbing surrounding regions. Invasions by Gauls led to the construction of a wall. In 312 BC, the Aqua Appia aqueduct was built, and the Roman Forum was established.
Key Figures in the Republic
- Consuls: The highest-ranking officials, they exerted power in both civil and military matters. They summoned the Senate, presided over deliberations, and executed decrees.
- Magistrates (Prosecutors): In 366 BC, there was only one magistrate. They acted as judges and promoted litigation between citizens.
- Censors: Elected from former consuls, they possessed great power. Their term lasted five years, and they exercised authority over citizens and the Senate. They also administered the treasury.
- Councilors: Responsible for urban policy, including public buildings, water distribution, sanitation, and policing.
- Prefect: A military or civilian head who governed a province or department with judicial authority.
- Tribune: Elected by the people, their function was to veto Senate resolutions and propose plebiscites. They had inviolable personal status.
- Governor: The supreme head of a province.
Roman Society
Roman society was divided into free men and slaves.
Free Men
- Citizens and non-citizens.
- Women were treated as inferior, and old age was not respected unless one had a distinguished resume.
Classes
- Patricians: Men with lineage, they held positions of power and were associated with Jupiter. They were divided into three curiae: Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres.
- Plebeians: Commoners without lineage or land, they were admitted by patrician families as “clients.”
Political Structure
- King (Rex): Appointed by the gods, he was the army chief, high priest, and supreme judge. He had the power of “auspicium” (interpreting the will of the gods) and “imperium” (controlling the army).
- Senate (Senex: Old): Composed of patrician heads of families, they advised the king.
- Popular Assembly: 30 curiae grouped into three tribes: Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres (each with 10 curiae).
Servius Tullius’ Reform
- Expansion of Rome and construction of the Servian Wall.
- Incorporation of plebeians into the army.
- Social reform: Five census classes represented in the army.
- Military reform: Introduction of the centuria system.
Economy
The Roman economy was based on agriculture and livestock.
Roman Expansion
Internal Expansion
Patricians and plebeians fought for political, legal, and economic equality.
External Geographic Expansion
- Conquest of the Latium region (498-493 BC): Rome recognized the autonomy of Latin cities but reserved military control during war.
- Conquest of Italy (406-396 BC): Conquest of Etruria and defeat of the city of Veii.
- 387 BC: Conquest of Rome by Gauls (“Vae Victis!”).
- 343-341 BC: First Samnite War.
- 326-304 BC: Second Samnite War.
- 298-290 BC: Third Samnite War.
- Conquest of the Mediterranean (Punic Wars).
Punic Wars
The Punic Wars were a series of three wars between Rome and Carthage in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC.
- First Punic War: Due to economic rivalry, the Romans defeated the Carthaginians and took Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica.
- Second Punic War: Triggered by the Carthaginian invasion of Rome led by Hannibal, who crossed the Alps with elephants. The Romans, unprepared for war, used a truce to gather reinforcements and sent an army to Carthage, which destroyed the city. Carthage lost its power and became a Roman province.
- Third Punic War: Carthage remained a trading power, which led the Romans to raze the city and enslave its inhabitants.
Empire: Principate (27 BC-284 AD)
This stage coincided with the rise of Augustus. This period was marked by Augustus’s governance. He and his successors exercised the role of emperors but maintained some Republican institutions (Senate and elections).
Dominate (284-476 AD)
This period began with Diocletian (284 AD), whose military background allowed him to become emperor. It extended until the fall of Rome to Germanic peoples in 476 AD. This period was characterized by autocracy, where power rested not on the Senate or aristocracy but on the equestrian order and the military.