The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire: A Historical Overview
Rome
The Origins of Rome
The Italian peninsula was the birthplace of the Roman people. According to legend, it was founded by Aeneas. The first residents were the Latins, followed by the Sabines, and later the Etruscans.
Legend of Romulus and Remus
Aeneas founded the city of Alba Longa, which was ruled by Numitor. His daughter, Rhea Silvia, was the mother of Romulus and Remus. When Amulius, her father, imprisoned her and threatened to kill her children, Rhea Silvia escaped with them by placing them in a basket and sending it down the Tiber River. The basket got stuck in a plant, and a wolf that was drinking water saw them, took them, and raised them as her own. A shepherd named Faustulus recognized the clothes they wore, and when Romulus and Remus grew up, he told them about their origins and their mother, Rhea Silvia. Romulus and Remus freed their mother and killed their grandfather, Amulius. In gratitude, Numitor gifted them land surrounded by seven hills. As both twins were considered to be king, the decision was left to chance. Romulus was the first to see birds, then Remus. Romulus, being the first to see the birds, echoed his brother and forbade him to enter his land. When Remus invaded his land, Romulus killed him. Romulus became the first king of Rome. Since they had no women, Romulus and his friends abducted the Sabine women. To avoid angering their parents and spouses, they came to an agreement that after a Latin king, there could be a Sabine king, and this continued for four years until the Etruscans dominated.
The Etruscans
The Etruscans invaded Rome. They could not decipher its handwriting, and the last three kings were of Etruscan origin.
Cultural legacy: the flight of birds, the official chair, the gold crown, the purple robe.
Political Organization (Monarchy)
Rome was ruled by a king who was like a father to his subjects. He held all the powers, but the Senate and the Assembly limited his authority.
The Senate was composed of the heads of families of Roman origin. It limited the power of the king and ruled in his absence.
Elections: Roman assemblies were formed by laws.
Roman Society
Patricians: They were the descendants of the founders of Rome and had religious and political rights.
Clients: They were commoners and freed slaves who had no political rights or privileges.
Commoners: They were descendants of foreigners and had no political, civil, or religious rights. They were artisans and peasants.
Slaves: They were prisoners of war and commoners who could not pay their debts.
Institutions
Consul: There were two consuls who held all the real powers except religious ones. They were like kings.
Dictator: A dictator could be appointed by the Senate for six months in case of grave danger. They had all powers.
Praetor: Administered justice.
Aedile: Was responsible for police duties.
Censor: Conducted the census of the population, divided it into classes based on wealth, and had control of the Senate.
Tribune of the Plebs: Presided over plebeian assemblies to discuss issues related to them.
Senate: Judges were consulted when they needed their opinion. They were appointed for life and could be removed from their duty if they failed to fulfill it.
Elections: Assemblies convened to vote. There were three classes: curiae (according to birth); century (according to wealth), tribes (according to the household).
Quaestor: Dealt with collecting taxes and managing public funds.
Punic Wars
The Punic Wars signified the unification of Roman imperialism. There were three wars. In the first, to defeat Carthage, the Romans had to build a fleet. The second war saw the achievement of blunt mastery over the western Mediterranean. Finally, in the third war, the Romans completely destroyed Carthage.
After the Punic Wars, Rome was the first power of the western Mediterranean. From this time, Roman imperialism began.
Achievements of Commoners
Commoners were very important in the army and demanded more recognition. They achieved legal equality with the Law of the Twelve Tables, where penalties were equal for all. They eventually obtained social and religious equality.
First Triumvirate
After the civil wars, it was proposed to form a triumvirate (three men).
Caesar: Was a soldier, writer, and statesman.
Pompey: Was a Roman general.
Crassus: Was a businessman.
All three were patricians and belonged to the popular party.
The republic was divided into three regions: Crassus took care of the eastern peninsula, Caesar led the region of the peninsula, and Pompey took hold in Egypt. Caesar marched his army to the Nile, where Pharaoh Ptolemy XIII cornered Pompey. As Pompey landed, the general’s head was presented to Caesar on a silver platter. Caesar seized the Pharaoh and put his sister Cleopatra in his place. Caesar fell in love with Cleopatra and promised to return, but he was assassinated in Rome.
Second Triumvirate
The Senate organized a second triumvirate composed of Lepidus, Mark Antony, and Octavian. These three Roman generals were friends and soon sought to avenge Caesar’s death. Lepidus died after combat, and Mark Antony spent time in Egypt in love with Cleopatra. Octavian, from Rome, organized an army against Antony, who was defeated. Antony committed suicide after learning of Cleopatra’s death.
Octavian remained in Rome as the sole survivor of the triumvirates. The Senate gave him many powers.
The Principality
Octavian triumphantly entered Rome. He was a supporter of the monarchy but knew that Roman citizens would not accept it. He maintained a republican form, apparently persisting for all courts. The principality was the first citizen, and its prominence came from the accumulation of powers and titles. Prefectures were established, which exercised the government of the city of Rome.
Features: Socially, the abundance of workers decreased due to slavery and freedmen.
Third Century Crisis
Politically, the emperors succeeded wildly, lasting only about a year. The army came into the picture.
Economic terms: The conquests paralyzed agricultural and commercial activities.
Socially: The army was the most punished because, without conquests, there was no money to pay the soldiers.
Emperor Diocletian proposed a new form of government called the tetrarchy, i.e., government of four. He created two capitals: Nicomedia and Rome. Diocletian’s death meant the end of the tetrarchy despite their efforts to deify the imperial figure.
The Emperor Constantine founded the city of Constantinople on the ruins of the ancient Greek city of Byzantium.
Theodosius divided the empire between his sons Arcadius and Honorius. He awarded the Western Roman Empire to Honorius and the Eastern Roman Empire, with its capital in Constantinople, to Arcadius. Theodosius also made Christianity the official religion of the empire.