The Rise and Fall of Tsarist Russia: From Feudalism to Revolution
The Russia of the Tsars
Russia, the largest country in the world at the time, struggled to advance industrially due to its feudal social, political, and economic structures. Industrialization required agricultural development, which was impossible under serfdom.
Political Structure
The Tsars ruled as absolute leaders, controlling the army, acting as the highest church authority, and governing with an iron fist. Political protests were brutally suppressed, leading to the rise of underground movements and rebellions, such as the intelligentsia and nihilism. Nihilists, like Bakunin and Kropotkin, advocated for a peasant revolution to overthrow the Tsars. They educated the populace and engaged in terrorist attacks, including the assassination of Alexander II. Marxist ideas also spread, leading to the formation of the Russian Social Democratic Party, with its two factions: the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, who believed in immediate revolution, and the Mensheviks, who advocated for a bourgeois revolution first.
Economic Structure
Russia’s economic structure was archaic and agrarian, lacking modern farming methods. Income was insufficient to meet the population’s basic needs. A limited industrial sector resulted in substantial foreign debt. During Nicholas II’s reign, industrialization efforts, driven by railroad expansion, focused on major cities like St. Petersburg and Moscow, leading to large concentrations of workers, a factor that contributed to the revolution’s success.
Social Structure
The majority of the population were serfs. Tsar Alexander II abolished serfdom, but peasants had to pay for their freedom over 49 years, often resulting in continued debt to the Mir (peasant community). This sparked violent peasant uprisings. The lower class consisted of peasants and workers. The middle class included everyone except nobles and priests. The upper class, comprised of nobles and priests, held high positions in state administration.
The Revolution of 1905
This first revolutionary wave was fueled by unemployment, hunger, and discontent over Russia’s defeat in the Russo-Japanese War. Peasant and worker demonstrations became frequent. Bloody Sunday, a peaceful march to the Winter Palace to protest the country’s misery, ended with Tsarist guards firing upon the demonstrators, killing hundreds. The sailors of the Battleship Potemkin mutinied. The Tsar responded with the October Manifesto, promising a more open political system and universal suffrage. However, he continued to restrict political and economic participation.
Consequences of World War I and the Revolutions of 1917
In 1914, Tsar Nicholas II declared war on Germany, but the Russian army was ill-equipped. The war exacerbated existing problems: 1. Working class unrest and strikes increased. 2. Agricultural production plummeted due to conscription. 3. Tsarist repression intensified.
The February Revolution of 1917
Driven by despair over unemployment, poverty, and war casualties, the bourgeoisie and civil servants led this revolution. The Duma was dissolved, and a provisional government, headed by Lvov, was installed. Political prisoners were freed, the death penalty abolished, and an 8-hour workday established. Lenin returned from exile with his April Theses: 1. Nationalization of banks. 2. Establishment of a Soviet Republic. 3. Abolition of private property. 4. Suppression of the parliamentary regime. Lenin added social aspirations to his revolutionary goals: social revolution, land redistribution, and peace.
The Bolshevik Revolution of October 1917
Lenin, with Trotsky’s support, overthrew the provisional government under the slogan “All Power to the Soviets.” Trotsky became Commissar for Foreign Affairs, and Stalin was appointed Commissar of Nationalities. Three decrees were passed: 1. Decree on Land: abolished private property. 2. Decree on Peace: offered immediate peace to belligerent nations. Trotsky negotiated peace with Germany and Austria, signed in Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. 3. Decree on the Formation of a Constituent Assembly: formed a worker-peasant government called the Council of People’s Commissars.
The Origin of the Soviet State: The Lenin Era
The Bolsheviks established a dictatorial system, nationalizing industries and church property, and making peace with Germany.
The Civil War (1918-1922)
Tsarist forces and those discontented with the revolution, aided by foreign powers, fought against the Bolshevik Red Army, led by Trotsky. The Bolsheviks prevailed, consolidating their power. War Communism, implemented to control resources, forced peasants to surrender their harvests. Large and medium-sized firms were expropriated. Worker protests and strikes followed. In 1921, Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP).
The New Economic Policy (NEP)
The NEP was a temporary solution to the economic crisis. Small businesses were denationalized, private enterprise and trade were allowed, and the state retained control of large industries, banking, and transportation. Joint ventures with foreign capital were permitted. Economic activity improved, and harvests increased.
The Constitution of the Soviet State (1924)
Russia became the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). The government consisted of: 1. The Council of People’s Commissars (the government and its ministers). 2. The Congress of Soviets (representatives of workers and peasants). 3. The Supreme Soviet (a bicameral parliament with the Council of the Union and the Council of Nationalities).
The USSR After Lenin’s Death: The Stalin Era
Lenin’s 1922 testament proposed Trotsky as his successor and warned against Stalin. Stalin and Trotsky clashed over the revolution’s direction: Stalin advocated “Socialism in One Country,” while Trotsky believed the Russian revolution should be a catalyst for world revolution. Trotsky was removed from his positions, expelled from the USSR, and eventually assassinated in Mexico on Stalin’s orders.
The Stalinist Dictatorship
Stalin established a totalitarian regime, controlling all media and suppressing dissent. He used the NKVD (secret police) to eliminate opposition, deporting thousands to Siberia. The Moscow Trials (1936-1938) resulted in forced confessions and executions. Stalin’s personality cult further solidified his power.
The Five-Year Plans
The NEP was replaced by Five-Year Plans, centralizing economic control. The first plan eliminated the private sector. The second plan focused on industrial development and productivity. The third plan aimed for rapid industrial growth, making the USSR the third largest industrial power. This forced industrialization came at the cost of agricultural production.
The Economy of the United States
World War I transformed the United States into a major industrial power.
The Expansion of the 1920s
Fueled by electricity and automobile production, the US economy saw increased mechanization and the application of Taylorism. However, wealth maldistribution and excessive foreign debt created instability.
The Financial Crisis of 1929 (The Great Depression)
The American economy, based on consumerism, speculation, and private initiative, collapsed. Causes included overproduction, immigration restrictions, and high tariffs. Consequences included massive unemployment, bank failures, and business closures. The crisis also impacted Europe’s reconstruction efforts.
The New Deal
Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal, inspired by Keynesian economics, aimed to address the crisis through state intervention, supporting businesses, encouraging employment, and stimulating domestic consumption. Key New Deal programs included the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA), and the Agricultural Adjustment Act.
Effects of the Crisis in Europe
The crisis led to the decline of liberal capitalism. European governments intervened in their economies, nationalizing companies and supporting businesses.
Liberal Democracies
France, under the Popular Front government led by Léon Blum, devalued the franc and implemented social reforms. The United Kingdom adopted similar measures to the United States.
The Development of Totalitarianism
Post-war Europe saw the rise of totalitarian regimes. Factors contributing to this included: 1. Nationalist sentiment. 2. Political instability. 3. Economic hardship. 4. Social unrest among unemployed veterans.
Common Features of Totalitarianism
Totalitarian regimes shared characteristics such as single-party rule, suppression of individual freedoms, a cult of personality, state control of the economy, and the use of propaganda and violence.