The Rise and Rule of Primo de Rivera in Spain
Context and Causes of the 1923 Coup
The precedents for this dictatorship can be traced back to the Crisis of ’98 and the subsequent politics of regenerationism. However, the immediate causes lie in the crisis that began around 1917, when the political system of the Restoration entered a process of disintegration. This included:
- Frequent shifts between governing parties (the failing turno pacífico).
- Thirteen total and thirteen partial government crises.
- Social unrest despite the illusion of economic development after the Great War (WWI, ending 1918).
- Escalating violence, including gangsterism (pistolerismo), the application of the Ley de Fugas (allowing the killing of prisoners allegedly attempting escape, used for assassinations like that of Eduardo Dato).
- The military disaster at Annual in Morocco (1921), leading to the critical Picasso Report investigating responsibilities.
Within Spain, the army sought to recover its lost prestige, increasingly playing an explicit political role. This context culminated in the coup d’état led by General Miguel Primo de Rivera.
Primo de Rivera’s Regime (1923-1930)
On September 13th, 1923, the existing government advised King Alfonso XIII to dismiss the insurgent generals. Instead, the King reacted by asking Primo de Rivera to form a new government. By doing this, the King tied the fate of the monarchy to that of the dictatorship; when the dictatorship eventually fell, so did the monarchy shortly after.
The dictatorship of Primo de Rivera is often considered a precedent for the later dictatorship of General Franco. Primo de Rivera staged his coup with the support of the King, the army, and broad sectors of society, including the Catalan bourgeoisie. Other sectors were initially supportive or adopted a wait-and-see attitude. Significant opposition came mainly from some intellectuals (like Miguel de Unamuno), the anarchist CNT union, and later, other political groups.
This dictatorship is typically divided into two periods: the Military Directory and the Civil Directory.
The Military Directory (1923-1925)
Primo de Rivera clearly stated his initial intentions: to end caciquismo (local political bossism), remove professional politicians, regulate child labor, and modernize the country. He presented his rule as a temporary measure with two main objectives:
- Restore authority and public order.
- Resolve the Moroccan question.
The first objective was achieved to some extent, but at a significant cost to liberties:
- Suspension of constitutional guarantees provided by the Constitution of 1876.
- Dissolution of the Cortes (parliament).
- Dissolution of elected municipalities and provincial councils; public offices were filled by the military or regime appointees.
- Generalization of the Somatén (a Catalan civic militia, extended nationwide as an auxiliary police force).
- Suppression of nationalist movements (especially Catalan).
- Imposition of strict police order in streets and factories.
- Abolition of political parties and creation of a single official party: the Patriotic Union (Unión Patriótica) in 1924.
The second objective, resolving the Moroccan issue and restoring lost military prestige, was addressed decisively in 1925. Following Abd el-Krim’s attacks on French possessions in Morocco, a Franco-Spanish alliance was formed. This led to the successful Alhucemas Landing (Desembarco de Alhucemas) in September 1925, a turning point in the Rif War. Abd el-Krim finally surrendered to the French army in 1927. Spanish control over its protectorate in northern Morocco was subsequently consolidated.
The Civil Directory (1925-1930)
Following these successes, particularly in Morocco, Primo de Rivera decided to consolidate his power and institutionalize the regime, abandoning the initial idea of a short transitional period. This explains the inclusion of civilians in the government (alongside military figures), marking the beginning of the Civil Directory in December 1925, intended to provide a more stable, long-term structure for the dictatorship.