The Rise of Fascism and Authoritarianism in Europe
Axis Powers Timeline
Key Events (1920-1933)
- 1920: Formation of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazi Party)
- 1921: Assassination of Eduardo Dato
- 1922: Establishment of the Irish Free State
- 1923: Occupation of the Ruhr by France
- 1924: Death of Vladimir Lenin
- 1930: Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera in Spain
- 1931: Formation of the British Commonwealth
- 1932: Assassination of Domar in France
- 1933: Rise of António de Oliveira Salazar in Portugal
Fascism and its Context: The Authoritarian Right
In the early 20th century, European society faced a series of crises: a devastating war that shattered empires, a social revolution in Russia, and a crippling economic depression. Many blamed the 19th-century liberal system for these disasters, leading to a decline in support for parliaments, representative governments, and constitutions. The economic crisis of 1929 further weakened liberal forces. During the 1920s and 1930s, right-wing authoritarian movements emerged, demanding an end to liberal regimes. These movements rejected worker participation in politics and advocated for state control. Fascism, exemplified by Mussolini’s Italy and Hitler’s Germany, gained significant support across social classes through political propaganda.
Key Features of Fascism
- Rejection of the Bourgeois World: Post-war disillusionment and individualism fueled nostalgia for hierarchical societies. Fascists rejected parliamentary democracy, blaming it for social unrest and economic instability.
- Suppression of Marxism: Fascism viewed Marxism as a product of Enlightenment thinking and democratic values. Authoritarian regimes often persecuted and imprisoned left-wing politicians, trade unionists, and extremist groups.
- Strong Nationalism: Nationalism combined with xenophobia and racism. Fascists targeted groups perceived as threats to national unity, including socialists, communists, and cultural minorities.
- Militarism: Authoritarian movements often relied on the military. Leaders like Franco embraced military values, utilizing uniforms, militias, and parades to intimidate society.
Distinctive Characteristics of Fascist Movements
Fascist movements distinguished themselves from other authoritarian right-wing movements through their modern, revolutionary approach. They aimed to build a new society beyond capitalism and communism. Key characteristics included:
- Mass Mobilization: Fascists effectively organized and mobilized the masses within modern political parties, competing with socialists and communists.
- Propaganda and Demagoguery: They employed propaganda and tailored messages to appeal to different groups, utilizing symbols like the swastika.
- Charismatic Leadership: Fascist leaders were often charismatic figures, separate from traditional conservative groups. They were often indifferent to religion and existing political systems, relying on the army while maintaining civilian leadership.
Fascism was less of a coherent ideology and more a blend of irrational ideas, myths, and beliefs, often bordering on religious faith. It incorporated various prejudices and principles into its governance.
Authoritarian and Fascist Regimes
Two waves of undemocratic regimes swept through Europe:
First Wave (1920s)
Following World War I, Eastern and Southern Europe saw the rise of authoritarian regimes fueled by fear of revolution, rejection of peace treaties, and political and economic instability. Notable examples include the regimes of Salazar, Primo de Rivera, and Mussolini.
Second Wave (1930s)
The 1929 crisis intensified fear and support for repressive measures. Fascism’s rise in Germany led to its global spread. Most dictatorships were established with little resistance, except in Spain, where the Second Republic resisted a coup, resulting in the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) and the establishment of Franco’s fascist dictatorship (1939-1975).
World War II and its Aftermath
Key Terms
- Axis Powers: Germany, Italy, and Japan
- Spanish Civil War: (1936-1939)
- Resistance: Clandestine opposition to invaders or dictatorships.
- Genocide: Systematic extermination of a social group based on race, ethnicity, religion, or nationality.
- Collaboration: Cooperation with fascist regimes during World War II.
War’s Impact
- Casualties: Estimated between 40 and 50 million deaths.
- Mass Movements: Forced labor and displacement of prisoners of war.
- Political Repression and Torture: Widespread use of torture, internment, and extermination, particularly by Axis powers and the USSR.
- Economic Impact: The U.S. benefited economically, while Europe was devastated. Great Britain’s empire declined, France faced political crisis, Germany was divided, and Eastern Europe fell under Soviet influence. The U.S. and USSR emerged as superpowers.