The Rise of Fascism and Nazism in Europe
Fascist Ideology
Fascism advocated for a totalitarian, one-party political system under a dictator. This system aimed to shape society based on hierarchy, obedience, and the authority of an exceptional leader, fostering a cult of personality. Fascism opposed both capitalism and radicalism, while promoting an expansionist and aggressive, militaristic nationalism. Racism, particularly antisemitism, became central to Nazi ideology.
Fascism rejected Western culture’s emphasis on materialism, rationalism, and egalitarianism, instead exalting irrational behavior and advocating violence against political opponents. Fascist parties mobilized the masses through symbols and emphasized traditional gender roles, with men in positions of power and women relegated to domestic duties.
Italy: The Fascist March to Power
Benito Mussolini, the founder of fascism, transitioned from the radical wing of the Socialist Party to extreme nationalism. In 1919, he formed the Fasci di Combattimento, a paramilitary group whose members wore black shirts and military caps. Initially, the Fascists combined extreme nationalist claims with a socialist program.
One of their first violent actions was destroying the offices of the socialist newspaper Avanti!, accusing it of spreading anti-nationalist sentiments. Though initially a minority movement, fascism gained support as Italians grew distrustful of the parliamentary regime. Mussolini then shifted tactics, abandoning his revolutionary approach and embracing parliamentary struggle. In 1921, he transformed the Fasci into the National Fascist Party, while simultaneously engaging in violent repression of unions and peasants.
In August 1922, in response to a socialist-led general strike against fascist violence, Mussolini’s supporters marched on Rome, leading to his appointment as Prime Minister.
Nazi Germany: From the Weimar Republic to Dictatorship
The Weimar Republic
In January 1919, the newly formed Weimar Republic faced the Spartacist uprising, a communist attempt to establish a socialist republic. Amidst this crisis, elections were held, and a constitution establishing a democratic federal republic was drafted. Friedrich Ebert was elected president.
The new government’s first major challenge was signing the Treaty of Versailles, the harsh terms of which burdened the Republic. The war’s economic impact further weakened Germany.
The Crisis of the Republic and the Rise of Nazism
The Great Depression had devastating consequences for German democracy, propelling the Nazi Party to power. The economic and social turmoil led to a loss of public confidence in traditional parties and the democratic system. This, combined with ideological radicalization, fueled support for Nazism. In 1931, the Nazis formed an alliance with the traditional right.
In January 1933, with their support, Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor.
Establishment of the Nazi Totalitarian State and the Third Reich
Between 1933 and 1934, the Nazi totalitarian one-party state was constructed. Following the Reichstag fire in February 1933, fundamental rights were suspended. In March 1933, Hitler was granted full powers, transforming Germany into a one-party dictatorship.
During the Night of the Long Knives in June 1934, Hitler purged the SA’s radical elements. In August 1934, he combined the chancellorship with the presidency, proclaiming the Third Reich.
The Nazi Totalitarian State
The Nazi regime suppressed freedom of expression, established censorship, and controlled education to indoctrinate youth with racist and militaristic ideologies. Propaganda was effectively used to promote the regime. Radical racist and antisemitic policies were implemented. An autarkic economic policy with intensive rearmament was pursued, aiming to create a greater Germany with Lebensraum (living space).