The Rise of Fascism and Nazism in Europe
Item 10: Fascism and Its Context
1.1 The Authoritarian Right
European society in the early twentieth century suffered a series of catastrophic events: a long and bloody war perceived as absurd and irrational, the collapse of traditional European empires, a social revolution in Russia that seemed to threaten European political regimes, and an unprecedented economic depression. Many people, fearful of these changes, blamed the nineteenth-century liberal system. They argued that values of reason, progress, education, and science had not prevented the war, and that institutions like parliaments, representative governments, and constitutions, instead of stopping the revolution, encouraged the masses to demand more rights and democracy. Additionally, liberal economic measures failed to survive the crisis of 1929. This climate allowed authoritarian right-wing political and social movements to emerge during the 1920s and 30s, aiming to dismantle the liberal regime. They coincided with leftist movements on this point, but unlike them, they did not advocate for workers’ rights or participation in politics, society, and the economy, but rather for state control over the masses. These right-wing movements sometimes organized into modern political parties and trade unions, drawing support from all social classes and utilizing political propaganda, media, street violence, and intimidation. These mass movements constituted fascism, most notably in Mussolini’s Italy (1922-1945) and Hitler’s Germany (1933-1945).
1.2 Peculiarities of Fascist Movements
Fascist movements had characteristics that set them apart from other authoritarian right-wing movements. They were modern, self-defined as revolutionary, and aimed to attract the masses to create a new society surpassing both capitalism and communism. Key features include:
- Mass Mobilization: They adapted to democratic society to attract crowds, organizing them into modern parties that competed with socialists and communists.
- Propaganda and Demagoguery: They used these tools to attract the masses and participate in elections, telling people what they wanted to hear. They also used symbols like the swastika, presenting it as a symbol of purity despite its racist connotations.
- Charismatic Leadership: A charismatic leader appealed to various social groups, including conservative capitalist aristocrats, whom they ultimately used to achieve their own ends. Fascists were often indifferent to religion and political systems. They relied on the army, but their leaders were civilians. They opposed free-market capitalism but exploited it to control the economy. More than an ideology, fascism combined irrational ideas, myths, and beliefs with almost blind faith: the leader was like a messiah. Fascism exploited deep-rooted human anxieties and transformed them into governing principles.
1.3 Authoritarian and Fascist Regimes
Between the wars, Europe experienced a surge in undemocratic regimes. Few countries maintained constitutions that allowed for elections, independent media, and political parties. By 1939, only Great Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Switzerland, and the Nordic countries retained their liberal institutions. Except for the USSR, dictatorships or authoritarian regimes were imposed in two waves:
First Wave (1920s): This wave primarily affected Eastern and Southern Europe, driven by fear of revolution, rejection of peace accords, political instability, and social and economic chaos. Notable examples include António de Oliveira Salazar in Portugal, Miguel Primo de Rivera in Spain, and Mussolini in Italy, the latter serving as a model for other fascist movements.
Second Wave (1930s): Following the 1929 crisis, rising unemployment led to widespread fear and support for repressive measures. Hitler’s fascist regime in Germany spread its influence globally. Most dictatorships were established with relative ease and little opposition. Spain was an exception, where resistance to a 1936 coup attempt led to civil war and Franco’s dictatorship.
2. Mussolini’s Italy
2.1 The Rise of Fascism (1919-1922)
The fall of liberal institutions in Italy occurred in 1922. Factors contributing to the rise of fascism included the desire to revise peace accords, the economic crisis, fear of social revolution, and parliamentary fragmentation.
Desire to Revise Peace Accords: Despite being a victor in World War I, Italy received little compensation. Public opinion considered the Paris Peace Treaty humiliating and inadequate reward for their efforts. Italy’s aspirations to occupy the opposite shore of the Adriatic were frustrated by the creation of Yugoslavia and Albania. They also claimed Fiume, which had been invaded by Italian volunteers in 1919.
In this context, Mussolini, a former socialist, left the labor movement due to its opposition to Italy’s involvement in World War I. In March 1919, he founded the Fasci di Combattimento, combining rabid nationalism with anti-clerical revolutionary syndicalism.
Economic Crisis and Fear of Social Revolution: The weak Italian economy was severely damaged after the war. Inflation, high war debts, falling agricultural production, and the conversion of war industries exacerbated the situation. Capitalists sought to preserve their wartime gains, while the middle class lost savings and purchasing power. A nascent Italian labor movement was not strong enough to trigger a revolution.
Under these circumstances, fascism rose, with its squadrons violently attacking labor unions, particularly in rural areas. This violence earned Mussolini the support of landowners and capitalists. He soon abandoned the revolutionary aspects of his program and began gaining seats in parliament, despite being a minority.
Parliamentary Fragmentation: The Italian electoral system favored a divided parliament with numerous political parties. King Victor Emmanuel III intervened, entrusting the government to various political leaders. These governments were unstable, ineffective, and powerless against the fascists. Mussolini organized the March on Rome, and when the king refused to grant full powers to the existing government, he appointed Mussolini to form a new one.
2.2 Consolidation of the Fascist Regime (1922-1929)
Mussolini’s first government had only three fascist ministers, but parliament soon granted him full powers, and fascist militias imposed their rule. In 1924, under a tailored electoral law and an atmosphere of violence and coercion, the fascists gained political and social control. Matteotti, a socialist leader, was kidnapped and murdered. In 1925, the legislative chambers were dissolved, beginning a personal dictatorship that lasted until 1945. Political parties and trade unions were dissolved, and the totalitarian fascist state was born. The Italian state reconciled with the Holy See through the Lateran Treaty (1929).
2.3 The Corporate-Totalitarian State (1929-1940)
Employers and workers were forcibly grouped into corporations, suppressing class struggle and organizing society based on occupation. Corporations were formed for various sectors, including banking, insurance, transport, and even artists. Economically, fascism initially implemented strict liberalism and deflation, later promoting protectionism and large business concentrations, gaining support from industrial and agricultural producers. In the 1930s, the regime became autarkic and interventionist, increasing its social presence with three objectives: to protect Italy from the Great Depression, to emulate Nazi Germany, and to militarize the country for intervention in the Spanish Civil War, the invasion of Albania and Abyssinia (Ethiopia), and World War II.
3. Nazism in Germany
3.1 The Weimar Republic and the Rise of Nazism (1918-1933)
Germany was defeated in World War I. The Weimar Republic, a democratic, parliamentary regime, replaced the German Empire. From its inception, the Weimar Republic faced numerous problems that allowed for the development of Nazism, including the loss of the Great War, post-war economic turmoil, the weakness of the regime, parliamentary division, and the 1929 crisis.
Defeat in the Great War: The new German state accepted the Treaty of Versailles, but most Germans considered it humiliating and imposed. The army and conservatives accused the regime of betraying the soldiers, blaming the defeat on political and revolutionary movements rather than the German army. Many German political forces sought to revise the treaty. Nationalist, anti-liberal, and militarist parties rejected the new regime and the Treaty of Versailles, particularly in Bavaria. Hitler refounded the National Socialist German Workers’ Party in Munich in 1921.
Post-War Economic Turmoil: Germany experienced an economic catastrophe, with currency devaluation severely impacting savers, pensioners, war widows, and salaried officials. Certain groups were accused of conspiring to enrich themselves at the expense of “good Germans.”
Weakness of the Regime: The Weimar Republic faced revolutionary attempts by the Communist Party, separatist movements, and coups by far-right groups. The Republic’s tolerance for these coups and the street violence of Nazi paramilitary militias was significant.
Nazi Party Militias: The SA (Sturmabteilung), created in 1920 and known as the “brownshirts,” were the Nazi Party’s paramilitary wing. The SS (Schutzstaffel) was a militarized political force initially designed as Hitler’s personal guard. The SS competed with the SA and, from 1934 onward, increased its power, taking charge of security in Germany and the administration of occupied territories. They were primarily responsible for the concentration camps and the extermination of Jews.
Division of Parliament: The German electoral system prevented any party from obtaining a sufficient majority to govern alone, leading to unstable coalition governments. The SPD and Zentrum parties relied on the President of the Republic. During the 1920s, successive governments leaned right, marginalizing the left. The Nazi Party, while initially rejected for its radicalism, became useful to right-wing parties due to its anti-Marxism, which frightened communists and trade unionists. Hitler received support from various social groups and financing from big businesses.
The 1929 Crisis: Germany was severely affected by the Great Depression, exacerbating social unrest and unemployment, threatening the middle class. This situation benefited both the Communists and the Nazis. In the 1932 elections, the Nazi Party became the most voted. Hindenburg, the conservative president, invited Hitler to lead a right-wing coalition government on January 30, 1933.
3.2 The Nazis in Power (1933-1945)
Despite leading a coalition government, Hitler quickly moved to suppress democracy and establish the Third Reich. He dissolved the Reichstag and called new elections. He banned political parties and associations and obtained dictatorial powers from the Reichstag, marking the beginning of the Nazi state. In the last elections, a single Nazi-controlled list received 90% of the vote, consolidating totalitarian power in 1934. After Hindenburg’s death, Hitler became Führer. To eliminate opposition, he purged the more radical wing of his party, the SA. The Gestapo and SS then systematically eliminated all opposition.
4. Democratic Alternatives
Great Britain, France, and the U.S. were forced to make significant changes to adapt to the new era.
4.1 Great Britain
After World War I, Great Britain faced serious problems, compounded by the 1929 crisis. However, the British political system survived due to several factors:
- Long Parliamentary Tradition: The British political system predated the war and was not a consequence of it, unlike in other countries.
- Majoritarian Electoral System: This system allowed for absolute majorities in parliament and strong governments, making it difficult to overthrow them.
- Acceptance of the System by Political Parties: The Labour Party replaced the Liberal Party as the main opposition, and all major parties accepted the existing system.
- Mature Labor Movement: Experienced trade unions demanded concrete improvements through organized strikes, prioritizing negotiation over revolution.
4.2 France
France experienced dramatic moments until 1924 and suffered a severe economic depression and social unrest after the 1929 crisis. However, France avoided authoritarianism due to several factors.