The Rise of Fascism and Nazism in Europe
The Rise of Italian Fascism
Post-War Europe
The first post-war years were difficult, especially for workers and peasants. There was also a significant threat of Bolshevik-style revolutions erupting in several European countries. To mitigate this risk, dictatorial governments, modeled after Mussolini’s Italian fascist state, were established in some European nations.
Italian Fascism
Benito Mussolini, presenting himself as a defender of order, garnered support from landowners, the army, and the church. He organized the Blackshirts, a paramilitary group, which attacked labor unions and farmers, suppressing their leaders. In 1921, Mussolini founded the National Fascist Party, whose agenda centered on building a strong state that guaranteed private property and pursued an expansionist foreign policy.
Seizure of Power
In the 1922 elections, the Fascist Party secured only 22 out of 500 parliamentary seats. However, later that year, his 300,000 Blackshirts violently crushed socialist and anarchist unions. Mussolini demanded to be appointed head of government. To exert pressure, he orchestrated the March on Rome with his Blackshirts. King Victor Emmanuel III, under duress, offered Mussolini the position of Prime Minister in October 1922. Three years later, Mussolini abolished democracy and established a fascist dictatorship.
The Fascist Dictatorship
The Fascist dictatorship operated according to these principles:
- Concentration of power in the hands of a charismatic leader.
- Abolition of the parliamentary system and political parties.
- Abolition of trade unions.
- Maintenance of the capitalist economy.
- Supremacy of the fascist state.
The Rise of Nazism in Germany
The Weimar Republic
At the end of World War I, Kaiser Wilhelm II fled to Holland, and a republic was proclaimed in Germany (with Weimar as its capital). The new government signed the Treaty of Versailles, which established peace with the Allied powers. Many Germans viewed the treaty as humiliating, as it blamed Germany for the war, stripped it of territories, reduced its army, and imposed heavy reparations. In 1921, Adolf Hitler took charge of a small political party, the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazi Party).
The Nazi Party’s Ascent to Power
The withdrawal of U.S. capital triggered the collapse of numerous German banks, leading to factory closures, widespread unemployment, and social unrest. By 1932, there were over six million unemployed in Germany. People increasingly turned to extremist parties for solutions. Intellectuals and the majority of workers leaned towards the Communist Party. President Hindenburg appointed Hitler Chancellor. After Hindenburg’s death, Hitler seized all power and established the Third Reich.
The Third Reich
Nazi Dictatorship
- Ein Volk (One People): The German people, representing the superior Aryan race according to Nazi ideology, were destined to dominate others. To maintain racial purity, relationships with Jews were forbidden. Women were expected to focus on children (kinder), church (kirche), and kitchen (küche) – the “three Ks.”
- Ein Reich (One Empire): The goal was to create a vast nation-state encompassing all lands where Germanic people lived.
- Ein Führer (One Leader): Hitler, as the leader, monopolized all power, becoming synonymous with the state (“Hitler is Germany, and Germany is Hitler”). He banned trade unions and all political parties except the Nazi Party. He also exerted control over the judiciary and the army (SS).
A Reign of Terror: The Gestapo (secret police) instilled terror. Starting in 1933, concentration camps were established to detain enemies of the Reich, eventually evolving into extermination camps. Many Jewish intellectuals, such as Albert Einstein, were forced into exile. However, the construction of highways (Autobahn) for troop movement and rearmament led to a decrease in unemployment.
Aggressive Foreign Policy
The German army reoccupied the Rhineland and amassed large quantities of tanks, warplanes, and other military equipment. Germany also withdrew from the League of Nations in 1933. In 1937, Germany initiated its expansionist policy. Hitler militarily occupied Austria, where Nazi theories had gained traction. In 1938, Hitler demanded the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia.
The Consequences of the War
When World War II ended, Europe was materially and morally devastated, its population decimated.
The Toll of War
The war resulted in approximately 50 million deaths, almost half of which occurred in the USSR, Germany, and Poland. Border changes led to a massive displacement of populations. Physical destruction affected cities, infrastructure, and industrial facilities. The war left a profound moral impact. Human rights had been violated, and violence and cruelty had gripped Europe for six long years. Knowledge of the Holocaust and the consequences of the atomic bombs left a deep trauma.
The Peace Conferences
The three major Allied powers met for the first time at the Tehran Conference (November 1943), where they coordinated military actions to hasten the war’s end. The second conference was held in Yalta (February 1945), where the denazification of Germany was decided. The third peace conference took place in Potsdam (August 1945), where the punishment of Nazi war criminals was agreed upon. The United Nations was founded at the San Francisco Conference (April 25 – June 26, 1945). The Paris Peace Conference (1946) finalized the peace treaties.