The Rise of Fascism and Nazism: Interwar Period
The Crisis of Liberal Democracies
A characteristic of the interwar period was the weakening of liberal democracies, brought about by World War I. Some blamed liberal democracies for the war. The subsequent economic crisis led to the impoverishment of not only the working class but also the middle classes, resulting in the rise of labor movements and an increasing number of strikes.
Causes of the Rise of Fascism
- Aggrieved nationalist sentiments, with Germans humiliated by the Treaty of Versailles and Italians feeling betrayed by the Allies.
- Radicalization of the labor movement.
- Fear among the ruling and upper classes.
- Economic crisis.
- Discrediting of the parliamentary system, leading to the acceptance of fascism and Nazism.
Ideological Bases of Fascism
- Totalitarian State: The state holds absolute primacy over the individual. A totalitarian state is headed by a leader (e.g., Mussolini in Italy, Hitler (Führer) in Germany).
- Rejection of Democracy: Democracy is rejected because it grants equal rights to all.
- Rise of Nationalism: Expansionist policies were pursued, with Mussolini aiming for Italian dominance and Hitler seeking to create a Greater Germany.
- Military Organization and Style: Fascist parties had armed groups that confronted political rivals, viewing war as an ideal.
- Shifting Economic Stance: Initially anti-capitalist, fascism shifted to the defense of private property, abandoning its anti-capitalist positions.
Fascism in Italy
Post-War Italy
- Economic Situation: Italy faced a severe economic imbalance.
- Social Situation: The dire situation of peasants and workers led to numerous strikes.
- Political Situation: Italy felt frustrated by the decisions of the Allies after World War I.
The Fascists and Mussolini
Fascist groups, known as Blackshirts, acted independently during the government’s weakness. Mussolini created the first fascio in Milan in 1919, marking the beginning of Fascism. Its members included the Arditi and it had the support of the Italian middle class.
Rise to Power
Fascists attacked trade union organizations using violence. Part of the Italian population began to see the Fascists as the hope for Italy. However, in the 1921 elections, the Italian people continued to support parliamentary democracy.
Fascist Dictatorship
The king and parliament granted Mussolini power for one year. In the 1924 elections, Mussolini continued as dictator with popular support. He aimed to transform Italy into a corporate state, where the state and corporations worked together for mutual benefit. Political parties disappeared, and parliament was replaced by the Chamber of Fascists and Corporations.
- Economic Policy: The Fascist regime maintained the capitalist structure, with businesses subordinated to the regime. To mitigate the effects of the 1929 crisis, autarkic policies were implemented, isolating Italy from the outside world.
- Foreign Policy: Expansionist policies included the conquest of Ethiopia, supporting the Nationalist side in the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), and aligning with Germany in the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis.
Nazism in Germany
Post-War Germany: The Weimar Republic
In late 1918, the Republic was proclaimed in Berlin. Republicans met in Weimar and drafted a constitution, establishing the Weimar Republic as a federal republic of 17 states. Executive power rested with the President (initially Ebert, succeeded by Hindenburg in 1925).
Period of Difficulty (1918-1924)
The early years were challenging, marked by attempted communist revolutions and assassinations of leaders by right-wing ultranationalist groups. Much of the German population resented the Republican politicians who accepted the humiliating terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Nationalist groups, angered by the defeat, emerged. The French army occupied the Ruhr in 1923 to force Germany to pay war reparations.
Hitler and the National Socialist Party
Born in 1889, Hitler joined the German Workers’ Party (later the National Socialist German Workers’ Party or NSDAP) in 1919. The party created the SA (assault troops) to attack political opponents. The French occupation of the Ruhr, hyperinflation, and the Weimar Republic’s conciliatory approach towards the Allies led Hitler to attempt a seizure of power in Munich in 1923. He was sentenced to five years in prison, during which he wrote Mein Kampf, outlining his ideology:
- Racism: A belief in the Aryan master race.
- Expansionism: A theory of Lebensraum (living space), advocating for an expansionist foreign policy to unite Germanic peoples.
The Nazis promised a strong government that could save Germany from communism and restore its industrial power. During the 1929 crisis, the Nazis and Communists gained support.
Rise to Power
The 1929 crisis was crucial for the Nazi’s rise. Many were drawn to parties like the Nazis and Communists, who offered simple solutions to complex problems.
The Nazi Dictatorship: The Third Reich
Hitler called new elections. The Reichstag fire, which the Nazis likely orchestrated, benefited the Nazi Party, making them the largest party. Hitler gained support in the Reichstag. Upon Hindenburg’s death in 1934, Hitler combined the offices of President and Chancellor, becoming the Führer of the Third Reich.
- Social Policy: Nazi racial hierarchy, with Aryans at the top and Jews at the bottom.
- Economic Policy: The capitalist structure was maintained, and strikes were suppressed. From 1937, autarkic policies were pursued.
- Foreign Policy: Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles, occupying the Rhineland (1936), annexing Austria (1938), annexing the Sudetenland (1938), invading Czechoslovakia (1939), and invading Poland (1939).