The Rise of International Tensions and the Outbreak of World War I
1. Shifting Partnerships and Rising Tensions
The Fall of Bismarck and New Alliances
In 1888, Germany’s young Kaiser Wilhelm II ascended the throne. He clashed with Chancellor Bismarck over colonial ambitions, believing expansion essential to rival Britain. Bismarck’s resignation marked the end of his carefully maintained balance of power. New treaties emerged:
- Franco-Russian Entente (1891): Czar Alexander III, needing an ally in the Balkans, formed a secret defensive pact with France.
- Entente Cordiale (1904): Britain and France signed a treaty of mutual support in Africa, resolving colonial disputes.
- Triple Entente (1907): Britain, Russia, and France united, creating a counterbalance to the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy).
France, once isolated by Bismarck’s policies, gained powerful allies. Germany’s colonial ambitions undermined the Chancellor’s efforts for peace. Japan’s rise as a power and its wars against China (1895) and Russia (1904) further destabilized the international landscape. The 1905 Russo-Japanese War sparked internal dissent in Russia, foreshadowing the 1917 revolution.
2. Conflicts in Africa and the Balkans
Testing the Alliances
From 1890, Wilhelm II challenged Britain’s industrial and naval dominance. His Weltpolitik (world politics) aimed to expand German colonial holdings. The Berlin Conference had divided territories, but war and diplomacy would further test the alliances.
2.1 The First Moroccan Crisis
Wilhelm II’s speech in Tangier (1905) supporting Moroccan independence challenged French influence. The 1906 Algeciras Conference affirmed Moroccan independence under Hispano-French protection, but Germany received colonies in East and Southwest Africa.
2.2 The First Balkan War
The 1908 Young Turk revolution and Austria-Hungary’s annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina destabilized the Balkans. Serbia, aspiring to unite South Slavs, protested Austria’s control of Bosnia, its access to the sea.
2.3 The Second Moroccan Crisis
Italy’s conquest of Libya (1911) prompted Germany to challenge French control of Morocco again. France ceded Congolese territory to Germany in exchange for recognition of its Moroccan protectorate.
2.4 The Second Balkan War
Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia, and Italy claimed Libyan and Aegean territories. The Balkan League (Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, and Montenegro) defeated Turkey. Serbia occupied Kosovo, leading to conflict with Bulgaria over Macedonia.
3. The Path to War
Militarism and Nationalism
European militarism and nationalist fervor fueled the march to war. The press amplified war rhetoric, emphasizing national duty. France sought revenge against Germany, while Germany and Russia cultivated pan-nationalist sentiments. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on June 28, 1914, in Sarajevo ignited the conflict. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914, triggering the alliance system. Germany declared war on Russia and France, and Britain joined the war after Germany invaded Belgium.
4. Phases of the Conflict
A Long and Deadly War
The war’s initial regional focus expanded as alliances activated. New technologies like machine guns, submarines, and tanks clashed with outdated strategies. The war unfolded in phases:
- War of Movement (August-September 1914): Germany’s Schlieffen Plan to quickly defeat France failed. The Battle of the Marne halted the German advance.
- Trench Warfare (1915-1916): Stalemate led to trench warfare on the Western and Eastern Fronts. Italy joined the war, opening a third front. War economies emerged, with governments controlling resources and rationing supplies.
- Turning Point of 1917: The United States entered the war after the Zimmerman Telegram and the sinking of the Lusitania. Russia’s withdrawal following the Bolshevik Revolution altered the balance of power.
5. The Russian Revolution
From Tsarist Rule to Bolshevik Revolution
Russia’s population growth led to widespread poverty and industrial decline. The Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (SD) emerged, with Mensheviks and Bolsheviks vying for influence. Lenin, leading the Bolsheviks, aimed for socialist revolution. The 1905 revolution forced Tsar Nicholas II to grant concessions, including a parliament. However, unrest continued.
The 1917 Revolutions
- February Revolution: A bourgeois revolution overthrew the Tsar, establishing a provisional government. Soviets also emerged, creating dual power.
- October Revolution: Lenin’s Bolsheviks seized power, establishing a revolutionary government. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ceded territory to Germany.
6. Peace Treaties and the League of Nations
Reshaping Europe
The Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh terms on Germany, including reparations and territorial losses. Other treaties reshaped the map of Europe. The League of Nations, an international organization for collective security, was established but faced limitations due to the absence of major powers.
7. War Communism and the New Economic Policy
The Aftermath of Revolution
The Bolshevik government implemented War Communism, nationalizing industries and controlling resources. After the Russian Civil War, Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP), a mixed economic system that allowed some private enterprise. The USSR was established in 1922.