The Rise of Islam: History, Caliphates, and Expansion
The Rise of Islam
Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam
In the Saudi Middle East, polytheistic beliefs were prevalent, with Mecca serving as an important religious center. Muhammad was born in 570 and orphaned early in life. He worked as a caravan driver. At 25, he entered the service of a wealthy widow, Khadija, whom he married. They had three sons and four daughters. According to Islamic tradition, the archangel Gabriel appeared to Muhammad, proclaiming him the new prophet of Allah, tasked with preaching the new religion of Islam.
The Hegira: The Beginning of Islam
Muhammad explained to the people of Mecca that Allah had spoken to him and asked them to abandon their old beliefs. However, his message was not well-received. In 622, Muhammad left Mecca to seek refuge in Medina; this event is known as the Hegira. By 632, almost all of Arabia had converted to Islam.
Islam: Core Beliefs
- Koran: The holy book of Islam, containing 114 chapters.
- Monotheism: The fundamental belief in one God.
- Prophets: God sent his prophet, Muhammad.
- Imams: Religious leaders who interpret the sentences of the Koran.
Sunni vs. Shi’a Islam
- Sunni Islam: Defines the succession of caliphs without requiring direct lineage from Muhammad.
- Shi’a Islam: Believes that Muhammad’s successors should be descendants of Ali.
Islam: A Code of Conduct
In Islam, power belongs to God alone. Political leaders, known as caliphs, wield power with a religious character, as it is derived from God. Justice must be applied according to the rules of the Koran. Family organization is also governed by religious rites of birth and death.
The Umayyad Caliphate of Damascus
Within twelve years of Muhammad’s death, Muslim armies controlled Egypt, Syria, and Iraq, and expanded to dominate Libya and Iran. Their advance was halted at the Battle of Poitiers in 732. The conquered territories remained under the authority of the Caliphs of the Umayyad family until 750. The Umayyads delegated their power to viziers, and each territory was governed by an emir or governor.
The Consolidation of Islam
Around 750, the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad rose to power. By the ninth century, Islam had spread through the efforts of sailors and caravan traders. However, the Abbasids gradually lost control over their territories. Some provinces became independent, with religious emirs and governors exercising power without regard to Baghdad.
The Integration of Conquered Peoples
In the name of religion, the goal was not to forcibly convert people. Christians and Jews, considered “People of the Book,” were granted protected minority status and were taxed. Muslims enjoyed social and economic benefits.
The Conquest of Al-Andalus
Muslims, primarily Berbers led by an Arab minority, invaded the Iberian Peninsula. The Visigoths, weakened by infighting, were defeated when King Rodrigo was killed in the Battle of Guadalete and his troops scattered. Muslim armies, led by Tariq and Musa, quickly advanced and occupied the cities of Andalusia and Toledo, the Visigoth capital. Some Hispanic-Visigoth nobles and clerics sought refuge in the Asturias region.
The Emirate Dependent on Damascus
Once the territory, called Al-Andalus, was controlled, it became a province of the Umayyad Caliphate of Damascus, with its capital in Córdoba. The conquest continued beyond the Pyrenees until the Muslims were defeated at Poitiers.
The Independent Emirate
In the mid-eighth century, the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate in Damascus. Abd-al-Rahman I, a member of the Umayyad family, broke away from the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad and proclaimed an independent emirate. During this period, disputes arose between noble families settled in Al-Andalus. By the tenth century, a legal and administrative structure was developing for the new state.
The Caliphate of Cordoba
In 912, Emir Abd ar-Rahman III came to power and militarily dominated the Christian kingdoms, forcing them to pay taxes. In 929, Abd ar-Rahman felt secure enough to declare political independence and proclaimed himself Caliph of Al-Andalus. This marked the height of the Caliphate of Cordoba (929-1036).
Taifa Kingdoms
In 1008, the Caliphate began to fracture. Within 30 years, Al-Andalus divided into more than 25 Taifa kingdoms. These kingdoms experienced a period of economic prosperity but sought aid from North Africa (Almoravids and Almohads). They were eventually defeated in the thirteenth century.
The Taifa of Granada
The Taifa of Granada was the only one to survive the Christian reconquest in the thirteenth century. Under the Nasrid Dynasty, it possessed a broad seafront and significant wealth and economic activity.
Economic Activities in Al-Andalus
The city served as the center of economic activity, facilitating the exchange of products. Most people were engaged in agriculture, particularly irrigated rice fields, as well as textile handicrafts and leatherwork. Trade was active both locally and internationally. Al-Andalus traded products with Europe, Africa, and the Orient.