The Rise of Nationalism in Europe: Unification, Revolution, and Tension
The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
Liberal Movements and Concessions
Liberal movements, though crushed by powerful conservative forces, had a lasting impact. Monarchs, recognizing the need to appease liberal and nationalist revolutionaries, granted concessions to prevent societal unrest. Serfdom and bonded labor were abolished in both Habsburg dominions and Russia. Hungarians gained increased autonomy in 1867.
Unification of Germany (1866-1871)
In 1848, middle-class Germans attempted to unite the fragmented German Confederation into a nation-state under an elected parliament. However, these nation-building efforts were suppressed in Prussia by a coalition of the monarchy, military, and landowners (Junkers).
Prussia, led by its Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck, spearheaded the movement for national unification. Through a series of three wars over seven years, Prussia emerged victorious against the combined forces of Austria, Denmark, and France, ultimately achieving German unification. On January 18, 1871, the new German Empire, headed by Emperor Kaiser Wilhelm I, was proclaimed at the Palace of Versailles. This unification solidified Prussian dominance in Europe. The newly formed German Empire prioritized the modernization of its currency, banking, legal, and judicial systems.
Unification of Italy
Italy, burdened by a long history of political fragmentation, was divided into seven states by the mid-19th century. Only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house. The north was under Austrian Habsburg control, the center under papal authority, and the south under the Bourbon kings of Spain. The Italian language, with its diverse dialects, lacked a standardized form.
During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini formulated a comprehensive plan for uniting Italy as a republic and founded a secret society known as Young Italy. Following the failures of the 1831 and 1848 revolutions, King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia-Piedmont, under the guidance of his Chief Minister Count Cavour, took up the mantle of Italian unification.
In 1859, Sardinia-Piedmont, allied with France, defeated Austrian forces. A wave of popular support, led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, bolstered the movement. By 1860, Sardinia-Piedmont’s forces had marched into southern Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, expelling the Spanish rulers. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel was crowned King of a unified Italy, with Rome designated as its capital.
Britain as a Nation
Prior to the 18th century, Britain lacked a cohesive national identity. Primary identities were rooted in ethnicity: English, Welsh, Scottish, or Irish. However, the steady growth of English power led to its influence extending over other nations and islands.
In 1688, England solidified its status as a nation-state when the English Parliament seized power from the monarchy. The Act of Union in 1707 formally united England and Scotland, creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain. England, however, maintained dominance over Scotland and Ireland in various spheres, with the British Parliament dominated by English members.
Following the failed Irish rebellion of 1798, led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen, Britain forcibly annexed Ireland in 1801. A new”British natio” was forged, symbolized by the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem “God Save Our Noble Kin”), and the English language.
Visualizing the Nation
During the 19th century, artists often personified the nation in female form. Allegorical figures representing liberty, justice, and the republic emerged. In France,”Mariann” embodied the idea of a people’s nation, characterized by liberty and republican ideals. In Germany,”Germani” became the allegorical representation of the nation.
Industrial Resources and Tensions in the Balkans
Iron Ore Belts
: •orissa-jharkhand belt: in orissa hi grade hem8te ore is found in badampahar mines in d mayurbhanj & kendujhar districts.in d adjoining singbhum district of jharkhand haem8te iron ore is mined in gua & noamundi.• durg-bastar-chandrapur belt lies in chhattisgarh & maharashtra.very hi grade hem8tes r found in d famous bailadila range of hills in d bastar district of chattisgarh.d range of hills comprise of 14 deposits of super hi grade hem8te iron ore.it hs d best physical properties needed 4 steel making.iron ore frm these mines is exported 2 japan & south korea via vishakapatnam port.• bellary-chitradurga-chikmaglur-tumkur belt in karnataka hs large reserves of iron ore.d kudermukh mines loc8d in d western ghats of karnataka r a 100 per cent export unit.kudremukh deposits r known 2 b 1 of d largest in d world.d ore is transported as slurry thru a pipeline 2 a port near mangalore.•copper- d balaghat mines in madhya pradesh produce 52 per cent of india’s copper.d singbhum district of jharkhand is also a leading producer of copper.d khetri mines in rajasthan r also famous.•bauxite- amarkantak pl8au,maikal hills & d pl8au region of bilaspur- katni.orissa is d largest bauxite producing st8 in india with 45 per cent of d country’s 2tal production panchpatmali deposits in koraput.•mica- northern edge of d chota nagpur pl8au.koderma gaya – hazaribagh belt of jharkhand is d leading producer.in rajasthan,d major mica producing area is around ajmer .nellore mica belt of andhra pradesh. •lignite- Neyveli in Tamil Nadu. Metallurgical coal is high grade bituminous coal which has a special value for smelting iron in blast furnaces. gondwana/ metallurgical -Damodar valley (West Bengal-Jharkhand). Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro, Godavari, Mahanadi, Son ,Wardha valleys• Tertiary- Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh ,Nagaland. •petroleum -anticlines and fault traps in the rock formations of the tertiary age. regions of folding, anticlines or domes, occurs where oil is trapped in the crest of the upfold. oil bearing layer is a porous limestone or sandstone through which oil may flow. The oil is prevented from rising or sinking by intervening non-porous layers. Petroleum is also found in fault traps between porous and non-porous rocks. Gas, being lighter usually occurs above the oil. 63 per cent of India’s petroleum production is from Mumbai High, 18 per cent from Gujarat and 16 per cent from Assam. Ankeleshwar -Gujarat. Assam -oldest oil producing state . Digboi, Naharkatiya, Moran-Hugrijan .•tension in balkan- a large part of balkans was under control of ottoman empire. with the weakening and disintegr8ion of d ot2man empire, nationalist tensions emerged in d area. its european subject n8ionalities broke away n declared dir independence. the ppl of the balkans argued that dy were once independent b4 d 4eign powers controlled dm. dir object was 2 regain dir lost independence. n8ionalist tensions emerged due 2 rivalries of d european powers e.i russia, england, germany. all d powers wanted 2 hav dir control due 2 1 reason or d other. rivalries among d balkan states- d balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other n each 1 of dm wanted 2 extend her territory at d xpense of d others. led to WWI.• vienna- hosted by duke metternich. d bourbon dynasty was restored in france. no. of states like netherlands, piedmont were strengthened on d boundaries of france 2 prevent french expansion in future. belgium in netherlands, genoa in piedmont. prussia got saxony in western frontiers of france, austria got northern italy, russia got poland, grand dutchy of warsaws n finland. conservatives imposed censorship.