The Rise of Stalinism: From War Communism to the Five-Year Plans
The Civil War and War Communism (1918-1921)
The Russian Civil War emerged as a reaction to the chaos of the Bolshevik Revolution. Counterrevolutionary forces, known as the White Army, united against Lenin’s government and fought on multiple fronts: Siberia, Poland, Crimea, the Caucasus, and the Don Valley. Foreign powers, including Britain, France, Japan, and the United States, provided economic and military aid to the White Army. Lenin’s Red Army, initially composed of volunteer Red Guard militia, faced a formidable challenge.
To support the war effort, Lenin implemented War Communism, a policy of complete state control over the economy. This aimed to boost productivity in all sectors, particularly agriculture, which had been devastated and could not meet the demands of the war. The state seized grain from peasants, nationalized industries, and implemented strict rationing. While these measures enabled the Red Army to be supplied, they also caused widespread hardship and suffering among the population.
From Lenin to Stalin: From War Communism to NEP (1921-1924)
The Revolution, communism, and the civil war had a devastating impact on Russia. Agricultural and industrial production plummeted, cities faced shortages, and inflation soared. Discontent grew among the population, including within the Communist Party itself, where the Workers’ Opposition called for greater democratization.
In response to this crisis, Lenin announced the New Economic Policy (NEP) at the Tenth Party Congress in 1921. The NEP represented a retreat from War Communism and a temporary compromise with capitalism. It introduced a mixed economy where agriculture, retail trade, and small businesses were allowed to operate privately. The state retained control over heavy industry, transport, foreign trade, and banking, focusing on modernization in these sectors. The NEP helped stabilize the economy, reduce inflation, and stimulate production.
Political Developments: The Constitution of 1924
With the end of the civil war and the consolidation of Communist power, the first Soviet constitution was adopted in 1924. It established a federal system called the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), granting each republic the right to self-determination. The highest governing body was the Congress of Soviets, but real executive power resided in the Presidium or Council of People’s Commissars. The Communist Party, declared the sole legal party in the USSR, held ultimate authority, with the party’s general secretary wielding significant political power.
The Third International (Comintern)
Following the collapse of the Second International during World War I, Lenin called for the creation of a new international organization to promote communist revolution worldwide. The Third International, also known as the Comintern, was established in 1919 under the control of the Russian Communist Party. It advocated for revolutionary communism, rejected reformism, and sought to coordinate communist parties across the globe. Based in Moscow, the Comintern served as a vital link between the Soviet regime and communist movements internationally.
The Succession Struggle and the Rise of Stalin (1924-1929)
Lenin’s illness in the early 1920s triggered a power struggle for his succession. The two main contenders were Leon Trotsky, a prominent Bolshevik leader and advocate of permanent revolution, and Joseph Stalin, a shrewd and calculating bureaucrat who controlled the party apparatus. Stalin’s rise was facilitated by several factors:
- The need for stability and consolidation after years of revolution and war.
- The emergence of a new agricultural and industrial bourgeoisie under the NEP, which threatened the socialist project.
- Stalin’s control over the party bureaucracy, which allowed him to manipulate appointments and consolidate his power base.
By 1929, Stalin had outmaneuvered his rivals and emerged as the undisputed leader of the USSR.
Stage of Stalin: The First Five-Year Plan (1928-1932)
Stalin launched his ambitious First Five-Year Plan in 1928, aiming to rapidly transform the Soviet Union into an industrial powerhouse. The plan focused on two key areas:
- Collectivization of agriculture: Private land ownership was abolished, and peasants were forced onto collective farms (kolkhozes) or state farms (sovkhozes). The state controlled agricultural production and aimed to increase output by 50%.
- Rapid industrialization: The plan prioritized heavy industry, particularly steel, coal, and machinery production. The goal was to double industrial output within five years, drawing on the experiences of other industrialized nations.
The First Five-Year Plan achieved significant economic progress, with over 1,500 new industrial enterprises built. However, it also came at a tremendous human cost. Collectivization led to widespread famine, resistance from peasants, and the deaths of millions. Forced labor was used extensively in both agriculture and industry.
The Second Five-Year Plan (1933-1937)
The Second Five-Year Plan continued the focus on industrialization but aimed for a more balanced approach, emphasizing the development of light industry and consumer goods. Collectivization continued, further consolidating state control over agriculture.
The Political Framework of Stalinism
With the revolutionary phase over, Stalin sought to reshape the political system. The Congress of Soviets was replaced by the Supreme Soviet, and the Presidium became the collective head of state. The Communist Party was renamed the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and enshrined in the constitution as the leading force in Soviet society. Despite these constitutional changes, Stalin maintained absolute power, further strengthened by the Great Purges of the 1930s. These purges eliminated political opponents, dissidents, and even loyal party members, creating a climate of fear and paranoia.
Evolution of Soviet Foreign Policy
. The USSR was isolated internationally. After established relations with the capitalist countries and this fact was not foreign policy of peaceful coexistence. In 1922 the USSR took part in the conferences of Genova where he was recognized by Germany, and two years later by establishing diplomatic reasons they accepted with UK membership of international communism. In 1934 membership in the society of nations and beginning a collaboration with the Western democracies against a common enemy, fascism. He agreed with Germany that both governments agreed to participate in the conquest of Poland. The new company The most prominent was the change of social structure. Compared with the base was increased pre-revolutionary workers and peasants. In turn increase bureaucracy and consequently funcionarizado planning. Urban population is increasing. There was a new class of professionals and technicians. In education and culture are reduced illiteracy and a general requirement of teaching. There were substantial changes in the conception of the family: there was equality between a man and a woman and many women developed an important role in the new revolution and the new society.