The Rise of the Bourgeoisie and Medieval Urban Life
The Emergence of the Bourgeoisie
The growth of cities transformed feudal society. Kings, nobles, and ecclesiastics granted city dwellers personal freedoms and rights, such as property ownership and self-governance. This led to the formation of a new social group, the bourgeoisie, who were not part of the privileged class. They dedicated themselves to work and crafts, independent of feudal lords. Their wealth stemmed from trade, sales, and business profits.
Within the bourgeoisie, distinctions arose between the upper class (merchants and bankers) and the petty bourgeoisie (craftsmen and small traders). In addition to the bourgeoisie, medieval cities housed clergy, attracted by the wealth and activity. Other social groups included humble guild officials, apprentices, servants, beggars, and the unemployed. Minorities like Jews, often artisans or medical providers, resided in separate districts (ghettos).
City Governance
Early cities organized their government through public assemblies. They elected magistrates responsible for finance, order, and justice, sometimes led by a mayor. The town hall served as a meeting place, storing the city’s seal, coat of arms, archives, and treasury. Over time, city governance fell into the hands of wealthy merchant and banking families, some unrelated to the nobility, forming a privileged urban group known as patricians.
Urban Culture
In the 10th and 11th centuries, literacy in Western Europe was largely confined to clerics, royal officials, and some wealthy merchants. However, during the 12th century, economic improvements and urban development increased literacy among nobles and the merchant class. This fueled the development of schools, initially under church or city control. The desire for autonomy in learning and teaching led to the establishment of independent universities.
Royal Support for the Bourgeoisie
Between the 10th and 12th centuries, monarchs held limited power. They lacked the resources to maintain an army or administer their entire kingdom effectively. From the 12th century onward, monarchs leveraged economic growth and the rising bourgeoisie to assert authority over the feudal nobility, aiming for stability and unity. The bourgeoisie sought personal freedom, security for their businesses, and the right to enact laws, elect judges, and have local government. Some kings granted the bourgeoisie privileges, including freedom from feudal obligations, commercial monopolies, permission to open markets, and safe passage within the kingdom. In return, the bourgeoisie provided financial resources for the monarchs’ struggles against the nobles.
Courts and Parliaments
Royal councils, initially composed of nobles and clergy, began to include representatives of the bourgeoisie, first occasionally, then regularly. By summoning them, the king acknowledged the bourgeoisie’s growing importance and sought financial contributions (subsidies). These assemblies of the king with the three estates (nobility, clergy, and bourgeoisie) were called parliaments or courts. The bourgeoisie’s influence varied across kingdoms. In some cases, kings had to address their grievances and requests before receiving financial support.
Wars Between European Monarchies
The efforts of some monarchies to consolidate power and establish clear borders led to numerous conflicts between European rulers. A major conflict was the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) between France and England. The war began as a succession dispute for the French crown, with the English monarch claiming the French throne. The English occupied French territory for years, but the conflict ultimately ended with the victory of France under Charles VII.