The Rise of the Middle Ages: From Roman Decline to Islamic Ascendancy
The Beginning of the Middle Ages
The End of the Roman Empire
Germanic peoples, who lived in villages and practiced pastoralism, inhabited the north of the Roman Empire. The Romans called them barbarians (foreigners), believing they were less civilized.
From the third century, these Germanic peoples began to enter Roman lands, sometimes peacefully and other times violently.
In 395, the Roman Emperor Theodosius divided the empire between his sons Honorius (West) and Arcadius (East).
The problems continued, and in 476, the king of the Heruli, Odoacer, killed the last Western Roman emperor, Romulus Augustus. This date marks the beginning of the Middle Ages.
The Germanic Kingdoms
The Western Roman Empire was occupied by various Germanic tribes ruled by kings advised by councils of nobles and warriors.
Due to frequent wars, people abandoned the cities and sought refuge in the countryside for protection.
Trade declined, and the population relied on subsistence farming.
Culture also declined, with only jewelry making and some small churches built by the Visigoths standing out.
The Germans, mixing with the Romans, adopted their language, Latin, and converted to Christianity.
The Byzantine Empire
The Eastern Roman Empire, known as the Byzantine Empire, survived the Germanic invasions. It lasted for 1000 years. Its capital, Constantinople, was built on the ruins of ancient Byzantium (now Istanbul, Turkey).
Emperor Justinian, who ruled in the sixth century with his wife Theodora, was its most important emperor. He attempted to rebuild the Roman Empire, aided by his generals Belisarius and Narses, who conquered North Africa, Italy, and southern Spain.
To govern the empire, Justinian divided the land into provinces called themas and sent officials to enforce his rule.
The army guarded the borders, and diplomats fostered trade and good relations with other peoples.
Justinian reformed Roman law in his book “The Code of Justinian.”
The emperor held all power: military, political, and religious.
A Slow Decline
After Justinian’s death, the empire began to lose territory. Byzantium was eventually reduced to the Balkans and Anatolia. By the fifteenth century, only the capital, Constantinople, remained. It was conquered by the Ottoman Turks in 1453, marking the end of the Middle Ages.
An Urban and Commercial Empire
Byzantine cities were wealthy and large. Crafts flourished, markets thrived, rulers resided, and the military provided defense.
Byzantium enjoyed great economic prosperity, dominating trade with Europe, Asia, and Africa.
They sold agricultural products and crafts, and bought wheat, spices, and furs.
Byzantine coins were the primary means of payment in the Mediterranean.
A Greek Orthodox Empire
After Justinian’s death, Greek customs became prevalent, and the official language changed from Latin to Greek.
Religion held significant power and influence in Byzantine life. In the eighth century, the emperor forbade the worship of sacred images (“icons”). This decision provoked riots and violence until the ban was lifted.
In 1054, the Byzantine church separated from the authority of the Pope of Rome in what is known as the “Great Schism.” Seeking to emulate early Christians, they called themselves “Orthodox Christians.” They evangelized Eastern Europe and remain an independent Christian church to this day.
A Sumptuous Art
Byzantine art was rich and primarily religious.
Highlights include Greek cross churches with equal arms and domes, such as the Hagia Sophia, and mosaics on the walls and ceilings of churches and palaces.
The Rise of Islam
Founder of Islam: Muhammad
Islam arose in the Arabian Peninsula through Muhammad, a merchant from Mecca, born in 570. He married a wealthy widow and encountered other religions (Christianity and Judaism) during his business travels.
Feeling called by God, Muhammad left everything to preach a new religion, “Islam,” which means total obedience and commitment to God. Followers of Islam are called Muslims, resigned to the will of Allah (God).
Facing opposition from merchants and religious leaders, Muhammad fled from Mecca to Medina in 622. This flight, called the “Hegira,” marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar.
In Medina, Muhammad formed an army that conquered Mecca and all of Arabia, converting the population to Islam before his death.