The Rise of Totalitarianism and the Outbreak of WWII
Troubles of Liberal Democracy
In the aftermath of World War I, liberal democracies faced significant challenges. The capitalist system seemed out of control, with issues such as low salaries, long working hours, lack of access to education, and the influence of the Russian Revolution. The bourgeoisie controlled the capitalist system, while workers began to organize and mobilize.
Germany
After World War I, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated, and Germany became a republic. The Weimar Republic, a bourgeois capitalist republic, was established. However, workers, particularly those aligned with the KPD (Communist Party of Germany) led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, began organizing for a socialist revolution, inspired by the Soviet model. Strikes and protests erupted, raising the possibility of a Soviet-style revolution. In response, the government resorted to violence, ultimately assassinating Luxemburg and Liebknecht to prevent the revolution.
Italy
In Italy, workers aggressively demanded better salaries, more rights, and greater participation in the democratic process. Employers resisted these demands. Two main opposing forces emerged: the PCI (Italian Communist Party) and Confindustria (the association of Italian industrialists). As worker protests intensified, and the police response was deemed insufficient by the employers, private armed groups were hired to suppress the workers and trade unions. The most prominent of these groups was the *Fasci Italiani di Combattimento*, led by Benito Mussolini.
Spain
The Spanish political system, designed by Cánovas, was characterized by limited political participation. Spain’s neutrality during World War I led to an economic boom as it supplied goods to the warring nations, primarily England and France (textiles, coal, iron, etc.). However, this resulted in inflation, worsening conditions for workers who were already excluded from the electoral process. Protests and unrest followed, compounded by a war in Morocco. The period from 1917 onward, known as the “Bolshevist Triennium,” saw widespread strikes, demonstrations, and violence, resembling a revolution organized by the UGT (socialist) and CNT (anarchist) unions. A general strike in 1917 was met with strong government resistance, lasting over three years. By 1920, 148 trade union members had been killed in Barcelona by hired gunmen, and some employers were also assassinated. In 1921, Prime Minister Eduardo Dato was assassinated.
Totalitarianism
Totalitarianism is a political system that seeks to control all aspects of citizens’ lives. Unlike a dictatorship, where some degree of political pluralism might exist, totalitarian regimes suppress all forms of dissent. They often employ secret police forces to monitor and control the population. Totalitarian societies are characterized by a lack of equality, with each group assigned a specific role (e.g., workers produce, women reproduce). They are typically ultranationalistic and expansionist. Totalitarianism is also marked by irrationalism. The three most prominent examples of totalitarian regimes in the 20th century were National Socialism in Germany, Fascism in Italy, and Stalinism in the USSR.
Causes of World War II
The rise of totalitarianism, particularly Nazism in Germany, created a significant power imbalance in Europe. Adolf Hitler’s concept of *Lebensraum* (living space) fueled German expansionism, as he believed Germans needed more territory. Germany aimed to conquer French and British colonies, leading to the annexation of Austria, parts of Czechoslovakia, and Poland.
World War II
The invasion of Poland in September 1939 marked the beginning of World War II. Germany possessed a highly superior military force, including:
- Land (Wehrmacht): Panzer and Tiger tanks
- Air (Luftwaffe): Stuka dive bombers and Messerschmitt fighter aircraft
- Marine (Kriegsmarine): U-boats (submarines) and pocket battleships
Initially, only France and the United Kingdom, which sent the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) to aid the Allies, actively resisted Germany. The military power of Germany was so overwhelming that countries like Bulgaria, Romania, and Croatia chose to collaborate rather than resist. Italy, meanwhile, sought to control the entire Mediterranean region.
German Victories
German forces entered Paris on May 10, 1940, and France surrendered on June 21. France was divided into two parts: the north, occupied by Germany, and the south, known as “Free France,” which was a puppet state under German control. To subdue the United Kingdom, Germany launched a sustained bombing campaign from July to the end of 1940. Despite having inferior aircraft, British pilots, including many from Poland, fought valiantly. Prime Minister Winston Churchill and King George VI played crucial roles in maintaining British morale. Although the United Kingdom was not defeated, its colonies, particularly Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and parts of Egypt, were threatened. In Asia, Japan invaded China and aimed to seize British and French colonies in East Asia, attacking Burma, Thailand, and the southeastern peninsulas (Vietnam, Laos).