The Rise of Totalitarianism: Fascism and Stalinism in the 20th Century
The Last Alliance of the 19th Century: The Formation of Blocs
The Rise of German Nationalism
The German people were entrenched in the belief that the “Genius Germanicus,” manifested through culture, language, and religion, should extend its area of influence, especially at the expense of Roman Catholicism. Bismarck leveraged these aspirations to create a bloc of alliances around Germany. A sense of German superiority began to emerge.
The Bismarckian System
Tensions between European powers led to treaties and alliances to balance forces. German Chancellor Bismarck promoted these agreements, acting as an arbitrator in international conflicts, a strategy known as the Bismarckian system. Bismarck aimed to isolate France and Great Britain. The German Empire joined Austria-Hungary and Italy in the Triple Alliance, pledging mutual support if attacked by France or Russia. A complex web of treaties ensued, culminating in Britain joining France and Russia to form the Triple Entente, thus balancing the opposing forces.
Armed Peace and Imperialist Ambitions
Imperialist ambitions drove these countries to modernize their armies and weaponry. Any new tension could shift the balance from defense to offense. This period is often characterized as an armed peace. Bismarck maintained an entente with the three emperors (German, Russian, and Austro-Hungarian) and directed their expansionist aims towards the Balkans, then under Ottoman control, while Russia sought access to the Mediterranean.
The Second Moroccan Crisis
Italy, exploiting the Ottoman Empire’s weakness, claimed a right to participate in its division and launched an offensive to conquer Libya. The Ottomans, unable to deploy ground troops, were defeated by a second-rate power. France ceded part of its Congolese territory to Germany in exchange for German recognition of the French protectorate in Morocco.
Totalitarianism: Stalin’s USSR and the Rise of Fascism
Characteristics of Totalitarian Movements
Totalitarian political movements rejected liberal ideals, asserting that individuals delegated their sovereignty to the state. These regimes eliminated the separation of powers and abolished political parties. Based on the perceived inequality of men, only an elite (selected and trained) could govern, led by a charismatic leader. Paramilitary police suppressed opposition groups and spread the new ideology through violent methods, aiming for ethnic regeneration. These movements often promoted racial hierarchies, with groups like Aryans, Latinos, and Slavs placed above Jews.
Propaganda and Expansionism
New ideologies were disseminated through radio, film, flags, parades, and other propaganda tools. These regimes instilled a sense of urgency to restore past empires’ greatness, leading to expansionist policies and aggression. The right to strike was forbidden, and trade unions were suppressed. Right-wing totalitarianism, or fascism, emerged in the turbulent interwar period, supported by landowners and capitalists fearing communism amid high unemployment. Impoverished middle classes, especially younger generations, were drawn to the nationalistic ideology. After the 1929 crisis, even some disillusioned working-class members, who had lost faith in socialist governments and the capitalist system, turned to fascism’s promises of full employment and prosperity.
Italian Fascism under Mussolini
Post-War Discontent and the Rise of Mussolini
Despite winning World War I, Italy faced a shattered economy and widespread discontent (a “mutilated victory”). Mussolini founded the newspaper Il Popolo d’Italia to spread his fascist ideology. In 1921, he founded the National Fascist Party, a reactionary, anti-parliamentary, undemocratic, illiberal, and anti-socialist movement. Its symbol was an axe surrounded by a bundle of reeds (fasces).
The March on Rome
During 1922, King Victor Emmanuel III’s conservative government struggled to control social unrest. They tolerated fascist violence against socialists and communists and even provided weapons. The army successfully thwarted a general strike. Inspired by victorious Roman generals, Mussolini organized his Blackshirts for the “March on Rome.” Its success was due to the army’s inaction, as the king was skeptical of parliamentarianism. He appointed Mussolini head of government with full powers. From 1922 to 1943, Italy lived under a totalitarian fascist regime.
Mussolini’s Policies
Mussolini aimed to create a powerful Italy in collaboration with the upper classes. This enabled an expansionist policy in the Mediterranean, targeting the Suez Canal. He banned all political parties except the Fascist Party. In 1925, he implemented a closed, nationalistic, and state-planned economic policy. Agricultural production intensified, and surplus was invested in infrastructure and public works. Unemployment decreased, and leisure time increased, fueling the cult of personality around Mussolini. One of his major achievements was the reconciliation with the Pope in 1929, signing the Lateran Treaty with Pope Pius XI, granting the Vatican City sovereignty and control over major basilicas in Rome.