The Rise of Totalitarianism in Europe: Fascism and Nazism
Totalitarianism
Defining Totalitarianism
The term “totalitarianism” encompasses both totalitarian communism and fascism due to their shared characteristics:
- One-party dictatorships
- State control of the labor market
- Rigid and exclusionary ideology
- State-controlled media and monopolized political and economic planning
These movements and regimes believed in the delegation of individual sovereignty to the State, which would organize lives and defend rights in the common interest. They featured a hierarchical one-party system centered around a charismatic leader and utilized paramilitary police groups to enforce their ideology through violence. Totalitarian movements aimed to morally and, in extreme cases, physically regenerate man, exerting complete control over civil society. Propaganda was employed to instill the need to restore past empires’ greatness.
Right-Wing Totalitarianism (Fascism)
During the interwar period, right-wing totalitarianism, broadly known as fascism, gained support from landowners and capitalists fearful of a Bolshevik revolution in Western Europe. They were joined by an impoverished middle class, particularly young people drawn to nationalist ideology and opposed to the Treaty of Versailles. Following the 1929 crisis, when the liberal system was blamed for economic turmoil, the working class and unemployed, disillusioned with socialist solutions, embraced the promises of full employment and prosperity offered by totalitarianism. German Nazism and Italian Fascism represented extreme versions of the 19th-century nationalist movement.
Italian Fascism
The Rise of Mussolini
After the Treaty of Versailles (1919), Italy faced a moral, economic, and political crisis. The journalist Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) founded the newspaper Il Popolo d’Italia to advocate for the Dalmatian coast, promote his fascist ideology, and challenge the liberal system through violent intervention. In 1921, he established the National Fascist Party, a reactionary, anti-parliamentary, undemocratic, illiberal, and anti-socialist party.
The March on Rome and the Fascist State
During 1922, the conservative government of King Victor Emmanuel III, unable to control social unrest, tolerated fascist violence against socialists and communists. On August 11, the army armed the fascists to suppress a general strike. This success led Mussolini to organize the march on Rome with his fascist squadre, mimicking victorious Roman generals. The army and the king remained passive, demonstrating their skepticism towards parliamentarism. On October 29, 1922, Mussolini was appointed head of government with full powers. By 1943, Italy would have a totalitarian fascist regime.
Expansionist Policy and Consolidation of Power
Mussolini pursued an expansionist policy to regain control of the Mare Nostrum and the Suez Canal. In 1923, Italy gained sovereignty over Rhodes and the Dodecanese, and in 1925, Albania became an Italian protectorate. In 1924, the assassination of socialist leader E. Matteotti by fascist paramilitary groups led Mussolini to assume political responsibility. He used this as a pretext to ban all political parties except the Fascist Party. In 1925, Italy adopted an autarkic, nationalistic, and planned economic policy. The state invested in infrastructure, military industry, and agriculture, mitigating unemployment. Mussolini cultivated a strong personality cult through education, media, and mass rallies. He even attracted intellectuals like Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, whose Futurist movement glorified heroic life, strength, and speed. In 1929, Mussolini signed the Lateran Treaty with Pope Pius IX, granting the Vatican City sovereignty and establishing an independent state.
The Second Bolshevik Revolution
1 Stalin’s Rise to Power
Lenin established totalitarianism in the USSR, transforming the Communist Party into a powerful bureaucratic machine. In his later years, a ‘troika’ of Stalin, Kamenev, and Zinoviev governed, facing opposition from Trotsky. Joseph Stalin (1879-1953), the party’s general secretary, aimed to succeed Lenin. Upon Lenin’s death in 1924, Stalin began his strategy, becoming the sole successor by 1928. He marginalized his colleagues in the troika and expelled Leon Trotsky from the country in 1929. Stalin then imposed his vision of consolidating communism in the USSR.
2 The Socialist Economic System and Five-Year Plans
In 1928, Stalin abandoned Lenin’s New Economic Policy (NEP) and implemented a socialized, centrally planned economy. This new socialist economic system, based on the utopian socialist principle of “from each according to his ability, to each according to his need,” was organized through five-year plans. All means of production, agriculture, and industry were nationalized and collectivized. Private trade and the market economy of artisans and small industrialists disappeared due to state-controlled supply and excessive taxation.
3 Industrialization and Collectivization
The First Five-Year Plan (1928-1932) aimed to achieve autarky for the USSR, leveraging its vast natural resources. The Soviet Union entered the Second Industrial Revolution, building large industrial complexes and power plants. Resources for this came from collectivized agriculture, organized into state farms (sovkhoz) and communal farms (kolkhoz). State farms received state support and achieved satisfactory productivity, while communal farms, rooted in the mir and anarchist tradition, struggled. Collectivization faced problems, including the slaughter of livestock by wealthy peasants resisting participation, and ultimately ruined crop farmers, former allies of the Revolution. The Second Five-Year Plan (1933-1937) followed, and the Third began but was interrupted by World War II. By then, Soviet society had become predominantly urban. The Soviet Union ranked third in industrial output, behind the U.S. and Germany. While much of the industry served military and transportation needs, it also supported free social services.
4 Stalin’s Dictatorship and Policies
These were years of communist dictatorship, with the Comintern leading the international labor movement. Significant aspects of Stalin’s rule included:
- Elimination of opposition and dissidents through purges
- Maintenance of the Leninist federal structure, but with a Tsarist-like policy of Russification
- Centralization of state control over foreign policy, transportation, and the economy
- Promotion of a cult of personality, which began with Lenin and continued with Stalin
European Reconciliation in the Roaring Twenties
Post-War Economic and Political Landscape
In the early 1920s, the U.S. enjoyed a superior economic position globally, with a strong dollar, Wall Street as the center of the stock exchange, and industries that had supplied Europe during the war. America was the only country capable of supporting European reconciliation through financial aid. However, Europe’s political situation was marked by distrust. Some countries were dissatisfied with the Treaty of Versailles, and the newly formed League of Nations lacked universal trust. The European economy was recovering slowly but experienced a period of overproduction, leading to factory closures, unemployment, and state intervention. The 1921 economic crisis prompted France and Belgium to occupy the Ruhr, ignoring the League of Nations. This forced international cooperation and led the U.S. to provide financial assistance to Europe.
The Dawes Plan and Diplomatic Détente
The Genoa Conference in 1924 aimed to stabilize currencies and control inflation, but the global economy faced limitations. The U.S. Senate, breaking its isolationist stance, approved the Dawes Plan proposed by General Charles Dawes. This plan provided loans to Germany and Austria to facilitate industrial restructuring and reparation payments at a manageable pace. France and Belgium evacuated the Ruhr. The U.S. reduced inter-allied debts and provided further funds to Germany, restarting the flow of money. A general economic recovery occurred between 1925 and 1929, despite trade restrictions. The Roaring Twenties (1924-1929) witnessed the consolidation of the Second Industrial Revolution globally, particularly in America. Increased production led to consumerism, fueled by advertising and media. Cars, musical equipment, and appliances characterized the new American way of life. American economic euphoria spread to Europe through loans and investments.
Improved Diplomatic Relations and the Locarno Conference
Economic stability fostered improved diplomatic relations. The efforts of German Foreign Minister Gustav Stresemann (1878-1929) led to the Locarno Conference in 1925, where Germany, Britain, France, Belgium, Italy, Poland, and Czechoslovakia agreed to accept the League of Nations’ arbitration. Germany was admitted to the League but continued to dispute the Versailles borders, pledging to resolve issues peacefully with France and Belgium. The Weimar Republic experienced economic prosperity and established the world’s first welfare state. However, its high social costs contributed to its demise when it succumbed to Nazism. In 1926, France returned to the gold standard and enjoyed prosperity, consolidating its industrial expansion. Paris became a center of luxury.
The Great Depression of 1929
The Stock Market Crash and Economic Collapse
In 1929, a severe economic and financial crisis erupted in the U.S., impacting all countries except the USSR. Since 1926, fueled by the Locarno Agreement, Americans had increasingly borrowed from banks. By 1928, high demand for shares inflated stock prices due to speculation, not reflecting actual business performance. Panic ensued in the spring of 1929, with massive share sell-offs causing prices to plummet. On October 29 (Black Tuesday), the Wall Street Stock Exchange crashed and stagnated until 1932. Small investors rushed to withdraw their savings from banks, which had invested heavily in the market. Banks reacted by liquidating investments and repatriating capital, negatively impacting German and Austrian industry. Bankruptcies followed. Industrialists responded by reducing prices (deflation) and wages, decreasing purchasing power. Unemployment, previously unknown in the U.S., soared to 32% within two years. Countries turned inward, seeking individual solutions.
Global Impact and Protectionist Measures
The crisis spread to Europe, Canada, and Japan, reaching its peak in the spring of 1931. Citizens became cautious, hoarding gold and cash. The economic downturn forced countries to explore alternative strategies. Large nations adopted protectionism. Great Britain abandoned the gold standard and devalued the pound by 25% in 1931. It strengthened economic ties within the Commonwealth through the Ottawa Agreements, imposing tariffs on imports. Simultaneously, it began dismantling its colonial empire.
The Rise of German National Socialism and Collaboration with Fascism
The Nazi Party and its Ideology
The German Workers’ Party, which Hitler joined, became the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP), or Nazi Party. Its core ideology included:
- Establishment of a strong national state with a leader chosen by the people
- Preservation of Germanic racial purity and culture, rejecting Latin influence
- Elimination of democrats, Marxists, and Jews as enemies of Germany
- Rejection of the treaties of Versailles and Saint Germain
- Creation of a Greater Germany, incorporating Czechoslovakia and Austria, with sufficient living space
Hitler rejected parliamentary democracy. In 1923, following the French occupation of the Ruhr, he participated in the failed Munich putsch and was imprisoned. While in prison, he wrote Mein Kampf (My Struggle), outlining his doctrine. He reorganized the party upon release, establishing his absolute leadership (Führerprinzip). He created the SA (Sturm Abteilung), a paramilitary assault section, the SS (Schutzstaffel), a security force, and the Hitler Youth. He staged rallies inspired by Wagnerian operas, cultivating a popular myth.
Hitler’s Rise to Power
In the 1930 elections, the Social Democrats lost ground, while the Nazis gained support. They used this to stage demonstrations and incite violence. The 1932 elections saw a dramatic increase in Nazi votes. On January 30, 1933, President Hindenburg, under pressure and fearing a coup, appointed Adolf Hitler as chancellor, despite his disdain for Hitler’s background and ideas.
The Nazi Regime and Consolidation of Power
Conservative parties believed they could control Hitler, who initially requested only two ministerial portfolios for his party. However, between February 1933 and August 1934, Hitler established a totalitarian dictatorship:
- Politically: He outlawed the Communist Party, blaming them for the Reichstag fire, suspended constitutional guarantees and popular sovereignty, created the Gestapo (secret police), detained Marxists in concentration camps, and implemented racist and antisemitic policies.
- Economically: He repudiated reparation debts and implemented an interventionist, autarkic economic policy, creating a sphere of influence among Slavic states, controlling prices (locked framework policy), supporting heavy industry, launching highway construction, creating the Volkswagen factory, and achieving full employment. He also used forced labor from social enemies (vagabonds, gypsies, Jews).
- Internationally: Hitler withdrew from the League of Nations.
From Republic to Empire
In August 1933, Hitler abolished Germany’s federal structure and imposed a centralized, totalitarian state. To realize his vision of Aryan dominance, he launched a population policy in 1935. In January 1934, he amended the constitution, becoming president upon Hindenburg’s death while retaining his position as chancellor. He enjoyed support from industrialists, the army, his party, and the SA, which he purged in the Night of the Long Knives in June 1934. He then rebuilt the army, reinstating mandatory military service in 1935, violating the Locarno Treaty.
Collaboration between Fascism and Nazism
When Italy left the League of Nations, Hitler provided Mussolini with weapons and fuel. Mussolini believed Hitler would be his ally, especially after Hitler recognized the conquest of Ethiopia. In March 1938, the German army annexed Austria (Anschluss) after a plebiscite showed overwhelming support. Austrian Nazis in Hitler’s government intensified anti-Semitism, leading to the idea of the Final Solution (extermination of Jews). During the Night of Broken Glass (November 9-10, 1938), 280 synagogues were destroyed, and 30,000 Jews were deported to concentration camps, foreshadowing the Holocaust. Hitler then aimed to reclaim the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia, inhabited by three million Germans. In September 1938, he threatened war, but Czechoslovakia sought help from France and Britain. At the Munich Conference, France and Britain appeased Hitler, believing they had secured peace.