The Rise of Totalitarianism: Russia, USSR, and Fascist Italy
1. The Russian Revolution
Tsarist Autocracy
The Tsarist Empire was vast, yet its absolutist monarchy clung to power while its social and economic structures lagged behind Europe. The Tsar, invested with absolute authority and lacking constitutional constraints, ruled by decree. The Orthodox Church held sway, the army wielded power, agriculture dominated the economy, and a privileged aristocracy controlled land ownership, leaving the majority of the peasantry impoverished. Industrialization, driven by foreign capital, began to emerge, leading to the founding of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1898.
February Revolution
World War I exacerbated Russia’s existing problems. Military disasters and the mobilization of millions of peasants led to decreased agricultural production and widespread unrest among workers and peasants. The populace, organized into soviets (councils of workers, peasants, and soldiers), demanded the Tsar’s withdrawal from the war and the end of autocracy. Political opposition, capitalizing on these circumstances, demanded the Tsar’s abdication.
Fall of the Tsars: In February 1917, revolution erupted in St. Petersburg, leading to the Tsar’s abdication and the establishment of a provisional government. Russia became a democratic republic.
October Revolution
Slow land reform and continued participation in the war fueled discontent and bolstered the Bolsheviks, who advocated for a government of workers’ and peasants’ soviets. On October 25, led by Lenin and Trotsky, the Bolsheviks seized power, overthrowing the provisional government. The new Soviet government implemented its first revolutionary measures.
2. The USSR
Building and Civil War
The Soviet government faced a three-year civil war against the White Army. The Bolsheviks, led by Leon Trotsky, created the Red Army. Gradually, the Communist Party consolidated its power, culminating in the formation of the USSR in 1922. The USSR, a federal state encompassing the nationalities of the former Tsarist Empire, was ruled by a parliament controlled by the Communist Party. This totalitarian system justified its rule through the concept of the “dictatorship of the proletariat.”
Struggle for Power
After Lenin’s death, a debate arose regarding the revolution’s future. Trotsky advocated for exporting the revolution, while Stalin proposed “Socialism in One Country.” Stalin, as General Secretary of the Communist Party, consolidated his power and became the leader of the USSR.
Stalinism
Stalin’s policies aimed to transform the USSR into a major industrial power through collectivized agriculture and a centrally planned economy. Private property was abolished, and heavy industry was prioritized. Stalin’s rule was marked by a totalitarian dictatorship and a cult of personality.
3. Italy in the Post-War Period
World War I left Italy with significant human and economic consequences. 700,000 deaths and crippled industries led to rising living costs, declining wages, and growing unemployment. Discontent grew over the peace agreements, as Italy felt cheated out of promised territories. The idea that Italy’s participation in the war had been a deception gained traction.
4. The Rise of Fascism
Amidst this crisis, Benito Mussolini emerged, founding the Fasci di Combattimento in 1919. These paramilitary “Blackshirts” aimed to suppress the labor movement through violent attacks on unions and their leaders. In 1921, the Fasci transformed into the National Fascist Party, presenting itself as the solution to revolutionary movements. The party gained support from the petite bourgeoisie, landowners, industrialists, the Catholic Church, and even King Victor Emmanuel III.
Mussolini’s Fascist Dictatorship
Between 1922 and 1925, Mussolini gradually restricted freedoms and persecuted opponents while maintaining a facade of parliamentary rule. After the 1924 elections, won through violence and intimidation, Mussolini established an authoritarian regime. Political parties were banned, opponents were persecuted, and parliament was replaced by a Chamber of Fasci. Strikes and unions were outlawed, replaced by state-controlled corporations. The state, through the Fascist Party, controlled all aspects of social life, the media, and the economy, supporting private enterprises with military orders and subsidies.