The Road to WWII and Its Aftermath: From Appeasement to Atomic Bombs
1. The Failure of Collective Security and the March to War (1930-1939)
The Influence of the League of Nations and the Rise of Fascism
The crisis of the 1930s unleashed expansionary policies in Japan, Germany, and Italy. These policies aimed to control markets and raw materials, while promoting nationalism and patriotic pride.
- Japan: Invaded Manchuria in 1931, establishing the puppet state of Manchukuo. Japan was subsequently expelled from the League of Nations.
- Germany: Hitler’s election as Chancellor in 1933 led to the rejection of the Treaty of Versailles and an expansionist policy. Germany left the League of Nations, reclaimed the Saarland, and remilitarized the Rhineland.
- Italy: Invaded Ethiopia, leading to its expulsion from the League of Nations. Italy rejected the imposed sanctions.
Collaboration Between Fascist Powers
Italy and Germany strengthened their relationship, forming the Rome-Berlin Axis. They supported the Nationalist side during the Spanish Civil War.
The Failure of Appeasement
European powers adopted a policy of appeasement, accepting Germany’s demands in the hope of avoiding war. This policy proved disastrous.
- Germany annexed Austria in 1938.
- The Munich Agreement (1938) ceded the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia to Germany in exchange for Hitler’s promise of no further territorial demands.
The Invasion of Poland: The Trigger for War
Hitler’s ambitions turned towards Poland, which had defensive alliances with France and Great Britain. Germany signed a secret non-aggression pact with the USSR, agreeing to partition Poland. The USSR also gained control of Finland and the Baltic states. Germany’s invasion of Poland in September 1939 triggered the start of World War II.
2. The German Offensive and the Expansion of the War
The Western Front
Germany’s blitzkrieg tactics led to the swift conquest of Poland. Denmark and Norway fell next, followed by an offensive against France, Holland, and Belgium. Paris was occupied in June 1940, dividing France into German-occupied territory and Vichy France.
France’s defeat led to the replacement of British Prime Minister Chamberlain with Winston Churchill. Germany’s attempt to invade Britain was thwarted by the Royal Air Force in the Battle of Britain.
Italy entered the war in June 1940, requiring German assistance in their campaigns in Africa and Greece.
The Eastern Front
Germany invaded the USSR in 1941, aiming to capture Leningrad, Moscow, and Kiev before winter. The harsh conditions and Russian resistance slowed the German advance.
The Pacific War
Japan, a major power in the Pacific, launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, bringing the United States into the war on the Allied side. Japan then began its conquest of Southeast Asia.
The “New Order” of Totalitarianism
Nazi Germany implemented policies of economic exploitation and political repression in occupied territories. Millions of Jews were imprisoned in labor and death camps. Japan enacted similar policies in its occupied territories.
3. Allied Victory (1942-1945)
The Turning Point: 1942
- Stalingrad: The German advance into the USSR was halted.
- North Africa: The Allies defeated the German Afrika Korps.
- Midway: A decisive naval victory for the Allies in the Pacific.
The Allied Counterattack (1943)
- Kursk: A major German offensive in Russia was defeated.
- Italy: The Allies invaded Italy, leading to Mussolini’s downfall.
- Pacific: The Allies began their island-hopping campaign.
The Final Allied Offensives (1944-1945)
The D-Day landings in Normandy (June 1944) marked the beginning of the liberation of Western Europe. Germany’s final offensive in the Ardennes was defeated. The Allies continued their bombing campaign against German cities. Hitler committed suicide in April 1945, and Berlin fell in May. The war in Europe ended with Germany’s surrender.
In the Pacific, the U.S. advanced towards Japan, capturing Okinawa and Iwo Jima. The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 led to Japan’s surrender in September, ending World War II.
4. The Organization of Peace
The Peace Conferences: Yalta and Potsdam
The Allied leaders met at Yalta (February 1945) and Potsdam (July 1945) to discuss the postwar order. Disagreements emerged between the U.S. and the USSR, foreshadowing the Cold War.
- Yalta: Stalin promised free elections in Eastern Europe, a pledge he later broke. Germany was divided into four occupation zones.
- Potsdam: Tensions between the Allies increased. The prosecution of Nazi war criminals began.
Territorial Changes
The war resulted in significant territorial changes, including the division of Germany, the Soviet annexation of Eastern European territories, and the loss of Italian colonies.
5. The Consequences of War
Loss of Life and the Crisis of Conscience
World War II resulted in over 60 million deaths and 35 million injuries. The Holocaust claimed the lives of six million Jews. The war’s brutality led to a profound moral crisis.
Economic and Political Consequences
The war devastated economies and infrastructure. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank were established to aid reconstruction. Western Europe lost its global dominance, replaced by the U.S. and the USSR. The United Nations was created to maintain peace and promote international cooperation.