The Russian, Habsburg, and Ottoman Empires: A 19th-Century Analysis

Posted on Dec 20, 2024 in History

The Russian Empire

Ethnic Diversity

We find a vast empire with a will of expansion. The boundaries are marked by the Congress of Vienna, and there is great ethnic diversity:

• In the Baltic regions spanning Finland, Karelia, Estonia, and Livonia.
• In the center, much of Poland (the richest), including the capital Warsaw.
• In the South, there is a river, Prut, which delimits the Warsaw, which is Russian, and Moldova, which is of the Romanians.

They want to be bigger; the weather has defined its history. It is a small empire in terms of culture, language, and geography but is larger in multi-country regions. The rivers freeze, and there were many railways, only one, and this was destined for nobility. One of their main aspirations has always been out to sea; they want to find rivers that are not ice, which standardize their communications; they want to extend the Black Sea. They intend to take from the Turks the straits of Bosporus and Dardanelles and thus get out into the Mediterranean.

From 1853-1856, there is the Crimean War in which Russia lost and will be a failed attempt to occupy the Straits, the Bosphorus, and Dardanelles. One of the Balkan crises in 1878, in which the Russians lost again and again, was unable to occupy this stretch.

The population in this territory is vast and is what will give the name of a multinational empire. The largest population is that of the Slavs, who formed two-thirds.

We will encounter three types of Russians:

1. The Great Russians, the elite that formed the State, the Court.
2. The Little Russians, located in Ukraine, were devoted to wheat, which is the backbone of the economy.
3. The White Russians and Belarusians, who live in areas near the Baltic and northern Poland.

After Stalin and Lenin, the White Russians will be in favor of the Tsarist and move to have political significance.

In addition to the Slavs, other minorities are delimited by geographical barriers: these are the Baltic and Caucasian, also form a mosaic, which also belong: Azerbaijanis, Georgians, Armenians. Among these, different religions exist; 2/3 are heterodox Christians, but the rest has nothing to do with this religion, which proves a problem.

Another group is the yellow, in areas of Asia and northern regions, Finns, Lapps, Hentsi, Samoyed, Ebenki, Churki.

Also, keep us Ural-Altaic: Turks, Tatars, Kazakhs, Uzbeks.

Two other groups are Jews and Germans, who are both minorities with a strong personality.

Reforms of Alexander II

Before the Crimean War occurred, Russia was keeping to herself, but after this war, the Russians could put on a war footing to millions of people, but if they have no arms, they cannot win from the point of view war; they are poorly developed. So the Tsar decided to perform a series of reforms, such as having a regular army under conditions and also in terms of weaponry.

As most people were serfs, the first step the Tsar took was the freedom of these slaves; the freed slaves are the first of the crown, so as an example. Now we must pay, and the nobility will cost much, but finally, they give way. Now they can go to work in industries, and so they become larger. The state will have to take much money to invest. From this war, they are not one, but they still want to be something important.

• In the Caucasus, they dominated part of Armenia, Yerevan, Azerbaijan, and the region of Kars.
• They succeeded in conquering Central Asia: Turkestan, Samarkand, and Pamir in 1898.
• In 1907 he signed the Triple Entente (France, England, and the Russian Empire), where he had Anglo-Russian rivalry.
• In the sixteenth century, they had started the colonization of Siberia and Kamchatka and will reach the end of the century. In the second half of the nineteenth century, they are going to run into the Yellow Sea, which in 1905 occupied the island of Sakhalin, as the area of Amir and Manchuria, where at one moment they clashed with Japanese interests with imperialism is Japanese.

The hostility between the Japanese led to the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, where the Russian army was defeated. The Peace of Portsmouth in 1905, where Russia renounced Korea and gave Japan Port Arthur and the southern half of Sakhalin. Russia also triggered the loss of the failed revolution of 1905.

These differences are given by the different socio-economic developmental levels. Nationalism will be developed between the two European groups (Little Russians). Nationalism among the Great Russians is Slavism (unite all Slavs); this will be used as the ideological basis for Russia’s territorial expansion. The Tsars tried to justify to these people, but it will not be possible because we are talking about a vast empire.

Tsar Alexander II came to the conclusion that the Russian Empire has very archaic structures; therefore, he decided that these structures must be reformed since it wants to remain one of the major powers. It also continues with the old idea of going to a normal sea or controlling the Mediterranean Sea.

Russia also has a good rail network; Prussia possesses it better, and thus realizes that the railroad will gain greater mobility and some higher expectations.

Nor has an army in a position, which leads to war. Crimea were peasants and men who have not a single instruction or teaching; Russia is a country of slaves, and this is one of the most important causes of their backwardness. Pedro I is that which began to develop a shipbuilding industry, or the second is the Kürsten. All these industrial comes from Germany to show the Russians.

The reign of Alexander II is being launched with a reformist policy, which affects the condition of peasants, serfs to pass free men, to college, the economic system, territorial administration, the judiciary, the army, and the abolition of serfdom. In 1858, the Tsar freed the serfs of his property to accomplish this; he had to fight a lot with the nobility. On March 3, 1861, it gives the emancipation of all serfs peasants and will abolish the jurisdictional rights of nobility. The 1863 decree of freedom for domestic servants created servitude MIR and will receive all the plots that were used before, but finally, only 10-12 hectares.

This was seen as an expropriation, so the state should compensate the nobles, and these farmers have to give money to the state plus interest; they will give them 49 years to pay.

The new organization, the ownership of land, will be done through the MIR, which is the village community, which regulates land expropriation but also of the payment that has to do. The liberation of the slaves is legal but not economic. The MIR is not going to let anyone who leaves the village if not paid before the debt.

The wrath of the nobility will be reflected in the State, which for these, is expropriated. There were people who would not receive land because they knew they could not afford them and only got a quarter of the land because here were free. These groups of farmers who are no longer free men and the population increase will be of what is going to feed the urban proletariat and agriculture. A new class, the kulaks, rich peasants who are, because they have bought land to the poor.

The nobles still retain forests, rivers, hunting, and fishing rights. With the reform czar begins, we see now the Russian nobility, anger falling from an economic standpoint; the use of the MIR did cut the power of the small farmer since he could not buy machines, plus all the land was not hers but of the community. But if you increase agricultural production because farmers now put more effort.

In 1897, the first and last census of the tsarist era (the second will be after the Bolshevik Revolution), reflecting 129 million Russians, the Russian military has 1.5 million people in its ranks, but in wartime, 5 million join.

It will conduct justice reform, which will abolish the jurisdictional rights of the nobles. This judicial reform will be inspired by the liberal model, enacted in 1862, creates new courts. Provincial courts appear and may even have a letter of appeal. They will also codify the laws; they will establish juries, something very modern for its time, and will be established in all cases, especially in criminal trials. All these processes will be public unless the politicians. There will continue to exist as a penalty, exile in the mines of Siberia, and legal inequality, as the servants could receive further punishment of being whipped; there is also the death penalty.

In 1864 will be the territorial administration reform with the creation of the Duma, and Zemstva, which are the Assemblies of district representatives, and Dumas are for cities. The elections of the rémsTV were divided into three groups: 1. Landowners, 2. Bourgeoisie, 3. MIR. But these meetings were always in the hands of the most powerful but were only administrative powers and also for the management of taxes to meet expenses. The governors of the States General may reject proposed, in the Assembly and the Duma.

Education is another field that’s going to take the Tsar Alexander II; the czar was a liberal and will create elementary schools, and technical schools are to strengthen curricula in universities, which are very backward, and are going to create new subjects; the most important are the natural sciences, and it will grant autonomy to the universities, in addition to easier access for the masses. Many children of the bourgeoisie, which had not previously had access to college because they were banned, and many children of priests, will become academic. But these people, in a short time, will become political enemies of the regime.

He also made military reform in 1864 for all male citizens, and nobles also had the privilege because their children unless they wanted or were, but now also be included. It will reduce the number of officers, which is going to improve the armament and military training.

In the economic sphere, they will take steps to improve industrialization. One of the measures that will promote industrialization will be the creation of the Imperial Bank in 1860 and railroad building because before I only had one branch, which ran from Moscow to St. Petersburg, most branches now be implemented with this network will articulate a national market will also enhance the exploitation of resources of cereals and cereal exports.

Trends policies: Nihilism and Populism

These reforms of Tsar Alexander will not have then because, in ’63, it was left to do because there was a revolt of the Poles because they wanted to be independent and together the three areas for which they have been separated. The rebellion will be crushed, which leads to a repression of these people, as the paralysis of policy reforms, which led to severe repression, between intellectuals and those who have fallen to foreign terrorist groups also appear, one of them will occur in 1866 when a college student would prejudice, without success, against the life of the Tsar.

We must also mention the influence of some writers, like Bakunin, Herzen; east from London, publishes a newspaper Kolokol (the bell), circulated among intellectuals because hidden came to Russia. We also have Metchaieu, with the Revolutionary Catechism, which was in favor of violence.

During his reign will appear two movements of opposition:

• Nihilism: They criticize social conventions and traditional advocated that Russia should open outward; these Russians are open to exchange views and customs.
• Turgenev is a Russian writer who, in 1862 wrote, unemployed parents and children open to the world as the child’s other educational needs that the Tsar is not giving. Chermiseuki, What to do? we were cherished in misery, or we go forward.

The ideas they had, on the need to create a new society, were harshly repressed; in these nihilistic, many were taken prisoner. But the desire of these people will push them a sector to participate in terrorist acts, but the only thing that helps is that in Europe, especially Russia, is associated with the nihilistic anarchists.

• Populism (or Narodnichestvo) emerges around 1870 as an intellectual movement; its leader is Lavorv. The main ideas lie in the confidence of the revolutionary potential of the peasant. He said farmers are the creators of a new company; this Russian company will be based on the consolidation of the MIR because you have to delete is private property, which it sees but communal property.

These will be organized in a secret society called Land and Freedom; in 1876, they will create a liberal political agenda, which included universal male suffrage and a constitution that limits the powers of the Tsar. These from 1874-77 will follow a policy of going to town to communicate their ideas to the rural world, to try to lure them to their masses; the charge of this work, students will be teachers.

This movement will fail because farmers are very wary, and in 1874, a Narodni sector will form one new organization, People’s Will, where terrorism is accepted as the only way out and political action. Among the most famous attacks, which will cost him his life to the Czar in ’81.

In 1901, it will establish a new political party, Social Revolution, which is the heir of these populist ideas. After this, you will see Russia, mired in an autocratic regime.

The Habsburg Empire

Historical Evolution

It is a multinational empire (until it disappears after the First World War in 1918); this is explained by its origin and historical evolution, being a conglomeration of diverse peoples of the Habsburg family heritage. The right thing would have been a union of these peoples in a strong state that failure to occur.

The emperor was Francis Joseph, which has a very broad rule, from 1848-1916; he has the responsibility of bringing his country to new circumstances that are being made in Europe, through nationalism, but has a good education policy, and throughout his reign ran an authoritarian regime and staff, but could have been surrounded by people with political capacity.

These territorial possessions in 1804 will be called the Austrian Empire. At the time of the Congress of Vienna will be the guiding power of all political designs throughout Europe. But in 1867, the empire was divided into two kingdoms: Austria and Hungary and will become a sort of federation of two states with identical laws but independent governments, but they won in greater freedom and autonomy. Now is the time to talk about the party or dual Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Austria was composed of: Vorarlberg, Tyrol, Salzburg, Lower Austria, Upper Austria, Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Galicia, Bukovina, Styria, Carinthia, Istria, Dalmatia.

Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, Slovenia.

Between 1815-1918, the boundaries will change; for example, in 1846 is going to annex a city that was free, Krakow. In 1859 and 1866, with the peace of Zurich and Vienna, they will lose Lombardy and Venice in favor of Italy. In 1875 Congress held in Berlin, and get the administration of Bosnia, Herzegovina, and the Sanjanato. The Empire will be a state without geographical and national unity, where the most normal was raised many problems and demands because they want to become nations.

This national diversity, not only is linguistic, there are different religions, even one with an Eastern culture. We must add a great opposition being the countryside and city and between industrial regions (Lower and Upper Austria, Moravia, and Bohemia) and those that are not industrialized.

The poverty of the peasants, Ruthenians, Slovaks, Romanians, and Serbs, in which nothing was done, so it increases the social problem, and what will these people are promoting their language and culture. The Hungarians were devoted to knowing where it comes from; they will find their ancestors with the A, to recover to its poets, novelists, secretly teach their language. A large part of Austria’s population was German, but other regions, such as Czech, felt marginalized.

There will, therefore, be clashes between regions and others and with the state itself. The Polish people will be better treated because he will not have problems with the state. In gratitude for the aid, the Austrians will recognize their cultural identity were also allowed to impose politically and economically on the uneducated people in Poland are and can thus exercise his dominion over these people.

• In Austria we have: Germans, Czechs, Poles, Ruthenians, Slovenes, Serbs, Croats, Italians, Romanians.
• Hungary: Hungarians, Romanians, Slovaks, Germans, Ruthena, Serbs, and Croats.

In Hungary, nationalism will be less problematic than in Austria. It will implement a policy ferra, from the official language, the Magyar, also with education, this would be the mandatory language. In 1848-1867, Transylvania will give Hungary and the rights that had lost, and Croatia will have a slight autonomy, but also in ’67 will be delivered to Hungary; this year will be given Slavonia; these were enemies of the Croats. Croatia has a proper diet, which sends its representatives to Budapest, but the parliamentary majority was formed by Hungarians.

Yugoslav nationalism is the strongest, will have its ideologue, Strossmayer, Zagreb will do a great cultural center and will form an academy in 1867, and in ’74 to create its own university. Try to unite Croats, Serbs, Slovenes, based on a common past. Nationalism is an intellectual, so it does not reach all the masses, this together with the history of their peoples, who have been confronted.

Bach Authoritarianism

This was Minister of Francis Joseph, who ascends the throne when he still has not quelled the rebellion of ’48, so his first task was to remove the embers of revolution. The emperor did not accept the constitution of ’48, but on May 4 del 49 accepts a fundamental law, and the next day to dissolve parliament.

Basic Law: the Habsburg Empire is a unitary, centralized rule; the constitution leaves are force of the Hungarians. This constitution was governed by liberal principles and some rights of the constitution of Cremssier. But these never came to be enforced, so that the Hungarians, was furious, and on March 14, declared themselves independent, Kossuth, will be named emperor, and the Hungarians repeal the emperor, and the Austrians respond to an armed intervention, will receive a partnership with the army of Nicholas I. so that the Hungarians have no choice but to surrender at the Battle of Vilagos, where there was very harsh repression to the people of the revolution, but Kossuth had time to flee to Turkey, but there were many executions, and created the legend of the martyrs of the homeland.

This win enabled to F. Jose, absolutist start his reign to be divested of the liberal facade by abolishing in December ’51 of the Basic Law 49. His government will be chaired by Bach, minister of justice and the interior, who ruled the country in an authoritarian way to ’59. But the legacy of the revolution of ’48 will survive.

It will create many career officers, which will be known as Bach using these upstage the nobility. The economic power of the noble anger in decline, because farmers are released, and also open to pay the owners of these slaves, and be borne by the state.

Annulling the legal systems and creating a judicial system with liberal principles. The trials will be public, and the greatest crimes shall be by jury, also created an appeals court. There will be a few years with a favorable economic climate; these people practiced the free trade of cereals, so it will grow the economy and industrial installations with the money, and they will develop and be born as a result an industrial bourgeoisie and the business. Also, we will develop the state railways and the first financial institutions and the first bank, Creditansal, which the country has banks, mean that you will prosper.

This situation of prosperity made people accept this authoritarian regime of Bach, both by Austrians as Germans, because it allows the novel of life goes up, but the Hungarian side lived a great tension because they were not disagree with the regime.

Keep in mind that there will be a process of Germanization, where everything had to be in Germany, which did not sit well with all ethnic minorities. The culture does not get along very well with ethnic acculturation and having no involvement in political life. The other authorities will be managed with the help of the army and police. But the desires for autonomy are very present. Kossuth was constantly throwing the idea that the Hungarians revolted against the Austrians.

In 1857 there was a crisis in the bag at the European level, which led to the collapse of many businesses that were speculative, and the industry was affected by lack of credit. The state had invested heavily in public works to maintain the army, which was very large and with many controls, and the new class has been formed to replace the nobility; officials also charged so that the state passed through many difficulties.

Nor could borrow from other countries, so it decides to sell the railroad, besides having to make budget cuts very whip, which comes very well, because it is now Piedmont and France, are preparing for the war with Austria, so Bach is fired.

National Tensions

In 1859, when he loses this war, which will force him to Franz Joseph to seek new support for its foreign policy, and also knows he has to find a better understanding with the Hungarians and other nationality. Until 1867 it was going to happen a number of tests to attract Hungarians, Czechs, and Poles, with the support of the nobility.

They will try to create a kind of federal state and create the Diploma October 20 – October 1860 will be fundamental law will be governed by Austria-Hungary; this was the idea of a Polish nobleman, Goluchowski.

Some diets are recognized territorial: Hungary, Chacos, who have legislative capacity. But not enforceable, and have to send their representatives to Parliament for discussion. The government was responsible to the emperor only. The Hungarians will complain to the emperor the constitution of ’48, and any means which the emperor take what will be considered illegal. Deak proposed the positive resistance, the empire, and who do not pay taxes, which caused major financial problems, of which already existed in the State, which further aggravate the situation. It will also make it Goluchowski minister, be sacked and replaced by Schmerling, who represent opposing political trends, pro-nationalism, and German centralism. Patent law is made by February, is a fundamental law, contrary to the principles of the law of ’61:

1. Segue still a Reichtart (parliament).
2. But eliminated the powers of the regional diets.
3. There is a new electoral law, which benefits the Germans, who were minorities: Hungarians, Croats, and Czechs, who boycotted the elections, without sending their representatives, so now the Germans are occupying the parliament, and Czechs and Croats will become more opposition, so the 20.septiembre.1865, this law will be repealed.

The loss to France and Poland, the emperor will see the need to see a deal with the Hungarians. Will fail in its project to obtain hegemony over Germany, and now the goal is to expand into the Balkans.

The commitment of ’67 implies the recognition of two kingdoms. Austria and Hungary (Dual Empire) with total autonomy for internal affairs. F. Joseph will remain the head of state and lie on a common policy regarding foreign policy, also in the army and finance, of whom they are accountable.

In both realms, there are two parliaments, with an upper house, and a Low: Congress President, shall be appointed by the emperor, and also removed by these, and will also be two parliamentary delegations, which will be discussed together, also a customs union, renewable every 10 years to permeate the two economies, but other nations are going to deny everything.

Ottoman Empire

From the late eighteenth century, the Ottomans had not participated in any changes, thus maintaining ossified economic, social, and political structures. Failed attempts at modernization are evidence of this, many more people being anti-Western; another of their problems are the upheavals of independence of the peoples they dominated that capture moments of weakness, hampering reforms. This shows that a state is not viable Ottoman peaceful development. Another fact: it is showing the international political weakness, the consequence of the foregoing; it will be a decisive factor, which threatens its existence as a state. They will have to accept the imposition of other powers to survive.

By 1870 is a vast expanse. Theoretically, they are in Europe, Asia, and Africa. This breadth requires power and imposes their culture, which increases the desire to be free and independent of the subject. In the nineteenth century, nationalist influences that have arrived from Europe stoke independence-minded to be used by unscrupulous leaders to make a profit.

In the Anatolian peninsula is where it concentrates most of the Turkish population, like Istanbul, capital of the state on European soil, and in Thrace. Not so in the remaining territories, which are a minority, even reduced to military sites that ensured the collection of taxes. The borders with Austria-Hungary and Russia are going to be continually affected by concerns of European expansion, creating problems known as the Eastern Question. In this area, we have Greeks, Romanians, Bulgarians, and Slavs divided Yugoslavs, between which there are some minorities like begs Islamized (Serbs of Bosnia Herzegovina), the Pomaz (Muslim Bulgarians of Macedonia). These people have converted to Islam to enjoy privileges, and they can exploit their compatriots. Still, the majority is Christian and therefore do not want to integrate with the Turks.

The Turks respected some autonomy to the people who dominated, giving jurisdictions sometimes clerics of other religions. What happens is that they have the same legal equality for Muslims.

Reforms were to secure rights to other peoples but fail because the majority of Muslims are opposed, as they themselves are already pursuing autonomy. It will give violent upheavals that come to break the cohabitation, finding that the Europeans the opportunity to act as defenders of the Christian cause. This question raises internal crises east and finally the breakup in 1913, reduced to Istanbul and part of Thrace.

Borders: give Azerbaijan, Armenia with its capital Yerevan and later, the region of Kars (1878). The domain on the Armenians had been very violent with several killings. Finally, the Empire has theoretical sovereignty over the Middle East, the Arabian Peninsula, and the north coast of Africa, far away from the capital, where he works with tribes who aspire to be independent. The regions are controlled by the Turkish Hejaz and Asir, in the Red Sea coast, where they have to face the British and radical Islam (Wahhabi).

Political and Administrative Organization

The sovereign is a member of the Osmanli Dynasty, which governed under the title of Sultan and Caliph (political and religious) because the Ottomans, after the Seldjucidas dynasty, had emerged as the Caliphate heirs and defenders of the interpretation Sunni Islam. In this connection derives religious confrontation with Western culture, finding himself unable to meet the current coming from Europe since the Renaissance. The cultural component that gives Islam will be a negative factor for the modernization of the Turkish Empire and because of the economic and political weakness.

The sultan rules with the help of a council of holy men, while the legislature justified as an interpretation of the Shariah (sacred laws). That advice also serves as Supreme Court chief chaired by the Mufti. In addition, a Grand Council of State (divan) in front of which is the Grand Vizier who has executive power. This power structure is repeated in each Sanjanatos (administrative divisions). Each Sanjan is governed by a Bey, and several Sanjanatos formed a wilaya. In large provinces of Africa and Asia, these are called bajalatos, the head of which is a governor with the title of Pasha.

There was a high degree of corruption, and this distances the elite from the rest of society that did not have the same opportunities. It is a very magnificent court with very high costs, explaining that the Treasury has to have landlords to collect taxes, hindering recovery. The tax burden is also to generate discontent. The army, very cruel and efficiently from previous centuries, was replaced by a group of elite, the Janissaries, who were not to rise to the occasion, picking defeats.

During the nineteenth century, various attempts at reforms arise to ensure its potential against the Europeans. To these must be more effective over the territory and the population. These projects do not threaten the established order and even served to increase the power of who claimed it. The first step was to delete the Janissaries, Christian children abducted and trained for war, since what is sought is to have a regular army. Is the era of Sultan Mahmud II, who announced the measure. The Janissaries started a rebellion against the Sultan, being invited to the palace, killing the main Janissaries (June 15, 1826). After this happens, Tunku Mecid promulgating a law of modernization with comprehensive reform to be implemented but without much success. Try to improve the administration, create a modern army and take action on other interesting fields like education, opening up a greater share of the population (nobility and gentry). This leads to finding a society divided between those who were trained and those who were not.

As for trying to eliminate the arbitrary justice, not so much by desire of the Turks but for presiforeign ion, plus the minority technocrat. Once the Sultan dies slowed down reforms, even those that had already begun. Legal reform stipulated equality of all before the law and drafted a series of laws that do not eliminate but if the complement sary. Legislative councils were created, being advisory only and may not establish or approve laws and civil courts; this being a step towards modernization. It also creates civil and military schools; the administration is centralized and strengthened, can better monitor each territory and its inhabitants.

The reform process is truncated in 1908 because of opposition from some sectors: lack of support from the Sultan, sectors and ultra-conservative traditionalists who fear being displaced from their positions, Christians (who in theory could benefit) see the reforms as a sign of weakness, intellectuals, soldiers and officials who want far-reaching reforms and even a constitution, a parliament and the government is representative.

By the World War I destroyed the Empire by the Treaty of Sebra (1920) and serves to reduce its size and to lay the foundations of a Turkish national state (1923-1938) under the authoritarian leadership of Mustafa Kemal ( revolution of the Young Turks) to be known as Ataturk (father of the country).