The Russian Revolution and the Rise of Stalin’s USSR
The Russian Revolution
The Russian Revolution erupted in 1917 during the First World War. It was a Bolshevik revolution that overthrew Tsar Nicholas II and established the world’s first communist state. In the early twentieth century, the Tsarist empire was extensive and dominated by monarchical absolutism, but its economy lagged behind the rest of Europe. Politically, the Tsar held the greatest power, supported by a loyal bureaucracy and army, while the Orthodox Church provided an important ideological foundation. Agriculture was the main economic activity, and land was mostly owned by the privileged bureaucracy. The majority of the population were peasants living in miserable conditions. Some areas of the empire had undergone an industrial process, creating a large industrial proletariat. Marxism had spread among the workers, and in 1898, the Russian Social Democratic Party was founded, splitting in 1912 into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks.
The Fall of the Tsarist Regime
At the beginning of World War I, Russia’s economy, political organization, and military were unprepared for such a long war. The mobilization of millions of peasants led to a decrease in agricultural production, causing widespread hunger among workers and peasants. The population began to organize into soviets (councils of workers, peasants, and soldiers), demanding that the Tsar withdraw from the war and end autocracy. In February 1917, a revolution broke out in St. Petersburg, leading to the fall of the Tsarist regime. A provisional government was established, transforming Russia into a democratic republic.
The Bolsheviks in Power
On October 25, the Soviets, led by the Bolsheviks, rose up, seized power, and deposed the provisional government. A worker’s government was formed, and Lenin’s new government enacted the first revolutionary measures: lands were expropriated and redistributed among the peasants, factories were placed under the control of workers’ committees, and peace was signed with Germany in 1918.
Stalin’s USSR
The Rise of Stalin
The new Soviet government faced a long civil war (1918-1921). One-third of the Tsarist army formed the White Army, while the Bolsheviks created the Red Army under the control of Leon Trotsky. The Bolshevik party, renamed the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), consolidated power, and other parties were deactivated. In 1922, the USSR was established, organized by a one-party parliament, with the CPSU controlling political life. This new political system was justified by the “dictatorship of the proletariat.”
After Lenin’s death in 1924, different proposals clashed among party leaders, particularly between Trotsky and Stalin. Trotsky advocated for exporting the revolution to other countries, while Stalin favored building “socialism in one country.” Stalin became the president of the CPSU in 1927 and the principal leader of the Soviet Union. Trotsky was exiled and later murdered in 1940, likely under Stalin’s orders.
Stalinist Policies
The Stalinist political economy imposed a collectivist society with the goal of making the USSR a major industrial power. This was achieved through the following guidelines:
- Banning private ownership.
- Prioritizing heavy industry to build necessary infrastructure.
- Establishing a state-led economy.
The result was rapid industrialization, but agriculture suffered a long delay. Stalin exerted a dictatorship in which the Communist Party controlled all organs of state.
Post-Stalin Era
After World War II, Stalin, as the chief of the Communist Party and the government, became the undisputed leader who had led the USSR to victory. Stalin’s death in 1953 opened a period of change in the Soviet Union. Nikita Khrushchev came to power and imposed a program of reforms to improve the lives of the people. In foreign policy, he paved the way for peaceful coexistence. However, the reforms initiated by Khrushchev were abruptly halted in 1964 when he was dismissed. The party apparatus appointed Leonid Brezhnev as general secretary from 1966 until his death in 1982. Brezhnev reimposed strict ideological and political control, leading to stagnation and continued economic problems.