The Russian Revolution and the Rise of the Soviet Union
Tsarist Russia
Russia remained an absolute monarchy under Tsarist rule. Although a parliament (the Duma) existed, its power was limited because the Tsar could convene or dissolve it at will. The economy was largely agrarian, with industry just beginning to develop. Since the late nineteenth century, political forces opposed to the Tsar had emerged, including the bourgeoisie and peasants, and revolutionary workers’ groups like the Mensheviks and Bolsheviks.
Revolution of 1905
The Tsar’s army suffered defeat in the Russo-Japanese War, provoking riots fueled by discontent over the loss and the ongoing economic crisis. The Revolution of 1905 began on January 9th when masses of people marched to the Winter Palace to present their grievances to the Tsar. The authorities responded with violent repression, an event known as Bloody Sunday. Protests continued for several months, forcing the Tsar to make concessions outlined in the October Manifesto of 1905.
February Revolution of 1917
Russia entered World War I in 1914. The February Revolution began after demonstrations on February 23rd. A general strike erupted on the 25th, followed by riots in military barracks on the 26th and 27th. A provisional government was formed, with Kerensky as a prominent figure, and the Tsar was forced to abdicate.
The October Revolution of 1917
Lenin, leader of the Bolsheviks, returned from exile. The Bolsheviks had attempted an unsuccessful uprising in July, forcing Lenin back into exile. The interim government also faced a coup attempt by a more conservative faction of the army led by General Kornilov. In October, the Bolsheviks launched another attempt to overthrow the government, this time successfully. On the night of the 24th, Bolshevik-controlled Soviets seized strategic points in the capital. The provisional government’s fall was finalized after the storming of the Winter Palace.
The Civil War
The country was divided between the Bolsheviks’ Red Army and the counter-revolutionary White Army. The civil war lasted three years, ending with a Bolshevik victory. During the war, the government implemented an economic policy known as War Communism, laying the foundations for the new state.
The New Economic Policy (NEP)
In 1921, the NEP was introduced to rebuild the shattered economy. These measures led to economic growth, and the emergence of landlords, wealthy peasants (kulaks), and a new bourgeoisie.
The USSR
In 1922, the USSR was established as a federation of republics, with its constitution drafted in 1923. Republics had autonomy in internal affairs, and the Supreme Soviet served as the legislative body. However, the Communist Party controlled all policies, with its Central Committee, headed by the General Secretary, as the primary authority.
The Rise of Stalin
Following Lenin’s death in 1924, a small group of leaders took control. Stalin, appointed General Secretary of the Communist Party in 1922, gradually consolidated his power.
Stalin’s Totalitarian Dictatorship
Stalin monopolized power, maintaining control through a cult of personality, strengthening the Communist Party, and employing terror. He also exerted complete control over culture, establishing Socialist Realism as the only officially accepted artistic style.
A Planned Economy
Stalin promoted a state-planned economy. Gosplan, a central planning agency, was created to design and implement five-year plans outlining economic objectives and resource allocation. All economic activities came under state control, and private property was abolished.
Collectivization of Land
The first five-year plan included the collectivization of land. Landowners were forced to relinquish their property, which became communal. The kulaks, who had prospered under the NEP, resisted and faced severe repression. This repression created terror among the peasantry, leading to a decline in productivity. Production targets were never met, resulting in widespread hunger and scarcity.
Industrial Development
Economic policy prioritized heavy industry and energy production. Coal, oil, and electricity production doubled quickly. Workers were encouraged to work on rest days and strive for maximum individual performance through appeals to their selfless dedication. The first three five-year plans transformed the USSR into an industrial power. However, this focus on heavy industry created economic imbalances, neglecting consumer goods and contributing to a low standard of living for the population.