The Russian Revolution: From Tsarism to Stalinism

Posted on Oct 23, 2024 in History

The February Revolution

In 1914, Russia entered the First World War alongside France and the UK. As the war dragged on, the prestige of Tsar Nicholas II’s regime crumbled. The defeats and the enemy’s advances spread despondency. More and more people blamed Tsarism for the war’s failures. The Bolsheviks opposed the war from the start, and by 1915, the liberal and socialist opposition emerged with force. In the winter of 1916-1917, discontent in the army and cities multiplied due to supply shortages.

In February 1917, spontaneous demonstrations of protest, led by women, erupted. The government sent the army to quell the revolt, but the soldiers joined the protesters. The Tsar abdicated, and the Duma (parliament) appointed a new provisional government that enjoyed the confidence of the country. The void left by the resignation of the Tsarist government was filled by liberal deputies in the Duma, who formed the so-called Interim Committee of the Duma. It was created alongside the Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies, thus establishing two branches of power: the Duma and the Soviet.

On March 2, an agreement was reached to form a provisional government. Russia became, in effect, a republic.

The Provisional Government

Between March and October 1917, events unfolded rapidly, leading to the disappearance of Tsarist Russia. A series of short-term provisional governments followed, each with increasingly radical politicians. Meanwhile, the Bolsheviks were preparing for their seizure of power.

The main objective of the provisional government was to establish a regular democratic government. Its first decisions were to continue the war and adopt a series of democratizing measures: a political amnesty, the establishment of political and personal freedoms, and the convening of a Constituent Assembly. This assembly was meant to define the new regime and implement economic and social reforms. The provisional government was initially accepted in Russia, but major problems were postponed.

The most important issues were social improvements, the desire for autonomy among non-Russian peoples, and above all, peace. However, successive governments kept Russia in the war, leading to the army’s decomposition and growing unpopularity. Bolshevik propaganda for peace spread throughout the country. Military commanders were disobeyed, and desertions increased daily.

During the months following the February Revolution, Soviets were established throughout the country. The power of these Soviets increased, often ignoring or contradicting government decisions. In practice, the Soviets became a second power. The situation deteriorated rapidly, with demonstrations and unrest returning to the streets. Kerensky formed a government with a majority of Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries, but the country’s situation did not improve. The Bolsheviks continued their criticism of these governments, particularly their continuation of the war, which caused their influence to grow, especially in the Soviets.

The October Revolution

In 1917, the Bolshevik party, though small, was composed of very active militants. A month later, Lenin returned to Russia from exile in Switzerland, aided by Germany, who knew his anti-war stance could benefit them. The provisional government pursued the Bolsheviks, forcing Lenin to flee to Finland during the summer of 1917. The Bolshevik party presented a revolutionary program.

At the end of the summer, General Kornilov attempted a coup to form a new government that would ensure order. With the situation deteriorating, Lenin decided to return from exile and convinced the Bolshevik Central Committee of the opportunity for an armed insurrection to overthrow Kerensky’s government. On the evening of October 24 to 25, 1917, Bolshevik troops and militias occupied strategic points in Petrograd. Lenin sought to legitimize the insurrection by presenting it to the Second Congress of Soviets. The Congress of Soviets elected a new government called the Council of People’s Commissars, with Lenin as its president.

The New Regime

Russia became the first country where a workers’ political party held power. In the days following its formation, the Council of People’s Commissars issued a series of decrees:

  1. Decree on Peace: Proposed peace without annexations or indemnities.
  2. Decree on Land: Expropriated large estates.
  3. Decree on Industry: Placed factories under the control of workers and employees.
  4. Decree on Nationalities: Declared the right of the peoples of Russia to self-determination.

Soviet power and the dictatorship of the proletariat became the basic pillars of the new regime. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed, ending Russia’s involvement in World War I, but with harsh terms imposed by Germany.

Civil War and War Communism

To curb the spread of the revolution, capitalist countries provided weapons to anti-revolutionary armies (White Army) against the revolutionaries (Red Army). The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was created. War Communism was implemented:

  • The already dire economic situation in Russia before the revolution worsened during the civil war.
  • Millions died of starvation and disease.
  • The main problem was supply.
  • Peasants were forced to give a portion of their crops to the state, causing violence but achieving some improvement in supply.

The New Economic Policy (NEP)

The revolution had triumphed, but at an enormous cost. At the end of the civil war, the country was exhausted. Between 1921 and 1927, the New Economic Policy (NEP) represented a radical shift in the USSR’s economic and social policy. It aimed to reintroduce limited capitalism to rebuild the economy. The economy was partially liberalized:

Advantages:

  • Freedom of trade.
  • Farmers could freely sell their produce.
  • Permission for small businesses.
  • Foreign capital investment was allowed.

Disadvantages:

  • Social problems.
  • Resistance within the Communist Party.

The revitalization of the economy was immediate.

Stalin’s Rise and the Establishment of a Dictatorship

Stalin established a dictatorial regime through brutal methods and the elimination of all opposition. After overcoming the challenges of collectivization, the USSR appeared calm. Opposition was removed, and the regime seemed to have the support of a majority of the population. However, a crisis took place within the Communist Party. From 1933 onwards, internal purges were conducted, motivated by Stalin’s paranoia. Any criticism was seen as a plot. Three major waves of Stalinist repression occurred. The first two, in 1933 and 1934, purged the party, expelling a substantial portion of its members. The third wave was the most significant. Between 1936 and 1938, the Moscow Trials took place. Most of the old Bolsheviks, other party leaders, and army officials were tried and executed, accused of absurd crimes. As a result, a new Communist Party emerged, entirely subservient to Stalin’s will.

By 1939, on the eve of World War II, Soviet society was vastly different from that of 1917. Soviet power was consolidated, and the Communist Party dominated all aspects of life. Private property was abolished, and the Soviet interpretation of Marxism became the official ideology. The country industrialized and cities grew. The USSR became a world economic power, accompanied by a broad Stalinist consensus. The mass repressions did not significantly dent public support; many appreciated the return to order, albeit a brutal one.