The Russian Revolution of 1917: Causes and Consequences
The Fall of Tsarism and the Russian Revolution
Tsarist Absolutism and its Consequences
Tsarism: Tsarist absolutism and lack of freedoms hindered the normal development of political life and held back the modernization of Russia. Although a European power, Russia remained one of the continent’s most backward countries. These contradictions led to the birth of political opposition to Tsarism, culminating in the revolutionary explosion of 1905, a precursor to the momentous 1917 Revolution that marked the end of Tsarist rule.
Economic Progress and Social Backwardness
Economic Progress and Social Backwardness: The Russian Empire was a major world power, but its strength was only apparent. Russia was a backward country, lagging far behind modern nations. Socially, a small minority held vast fortunes while the majority of peasants and workers lived in squalid conditions. One of the significant social problems was the lack of a middle class that could have modernized the country and reduced inequalities.
Rural areas remained underdeveloped, and the industrial sector faced significant developmental delays. The industrial proletariat was small and lived in abject poverty. Their concentration in large factories facilitated the spread of revolutionary ideas.
Feuding Politicians
Feuding Politicians: The Russian Empire was an absolute monarchy, with the Tsar wielding unlimited authority. Political groups emerged demanding profound changes and the end of absolutism. These groups included:
- Constitutional Democratic Party: This group advocated for a constitutional monarchy.
- Socialist-Revolutionary Party: This party held majority support in rural areas due to its focus on land ownership.
- Russian Social Democratic Labour Party: This party split into two factions: the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, who represented the Marxist left, and the Mensheviks, moderate socialists who were willing to collaborate with the Democrats to overthrow the Tsar.
The Revolution of 1905
The Revolution of 1905: The economic crisis of 1902-1903 fueled strikes, peasant uprisings, and numerous terrorist actions. The Russo-Japanese War of 1904 served as the catalyst for the revolution. In January 1905, a peaceful demonstration marched to the Tsar’s palace to plead for protection, justice, and improved working conditions. The demonstration was met with gunfire, resulting in deaths and injuries. This event, known as Bloody Sunday, triggered the revolution and led to the creation of the first Soviets (councils of workers’ representatives).
Tsar Nicholas II conceded to some reforms, including the establishment of the Duma (parliament) and the implementation of labor and social improvements. However, he later obstructed the Duma’s operations and reversed the policy reforms.
The Revolution of 1917
The February Revolution
The Revolution of 1917: In 1914, Russia entered World War I, which plunged the country into chaos and revolution. As the war dragged on, unrest spread among the population, and the prestige of the Tsar and his regime crumbled. Tsarism was increasingly blamed for the war’s disasters. Discontent grew within the army and in cities due to shortages and hardships.
In February 1917, spontaneous protests erupted in the capital, Petrograd, primarily led by women and workers. The police were unable to control the city. The chairman of the Duma urged the Tsar to appoint a new government that enjoyed the Duma’s confidence, but the Tsar responded by dissolving the Duma. Troops sent to quell the demonstrations joined the protesters. The city fell into rebel hands, and the government resigned.
The power vacuum created by the government’s resignation led Duma deputies to form the Provisional Committee of the Duma. Simultaneously, the Petrograd Soviet was established, controlled by Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries. Thus, two centers of power emerged: the State Duma and the Petrograd Soviet. The Duma and the Petrograd Soviet agreed to form a provisional government, and Nicholas II abdicated. Russia became a republic, and Tsarism was overthrown.
The Provisional Government
The Provisional Government: The demise of Tsarism was followed by a series of unpopular and short-lived governments. Meanwhile, the Bolsheviks prepared to seize power. The first provisional government aimed to establish a democratic regime. Its main objectives were to continue the war and convene a Constituent Assembly.
The provisional government was initially accepted in Russia, but major issues such as social improvements, land redistribution, and peace were postponed. Successive provisional governments kept Russia in the war, leading to their growing unpopularity. The Bolsheviks’ propaganda for peace gained traction. Soviets were established throughout the country, effectively becoming a second power structure parallel to the government.
Kerensky formed a government with Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries, but the country’s situation did not improve. The Bolsheviks continued to criticize these governments and opposed the continuation of the war, leading to their increasing influence, particularly within the Soviets.
The October Revolution
The October Revolution: What began in February as a revolt against absolutism culminated in October with the Bolshevik seizure of power. Lenin, who had returned from exile, advocated for an immediate socialist revolution. The Bolsheviks gained control of the Petrograd Soviet and planned an armed insurrection.
On October 25 (November 7, New Style), the Bolsheviks, led by Trotsky, launched their coup. They seized key government buildings and strategic points in Petrograd. The provisional government was overthrown with little resistance. The Bolsheviks formed a new government, the Council of People’s Commissars, with Lenin as its head. The October Revolution marked the beginning of the Soviet era in Russia.