The Russian Revolutions of 1905 and 1917
Czarist Russia
In the early twentieth century, Russia was a vast multinational empire spanning Europe and Asia. Ethnic Russians, despite being the largest group, constituted only 40% of the population. The Russian minority enforced a policy of Russification, imposing their administration, language, and Orthodox religion on other ethnicities. Compared to other European powers, the Russian Empire lagged behind economically and socially. In 1914, over 80% of the population relied on cereal-based agriculture, often working on land owned by wealthy peasants known as Kulaks. Late industrial development was spurred by the expansion of railways, foreign investment, and state funding, leading to the emergence of colossal modern factories concentrated in specific geographic areas. Tsarist Russia was an autocratic system, with power concentrated in the hands of the Tsar.
Revolution of 1905
The Revolution of 1905 was triggered by Russia’s defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). On Bloody Sunday (January 22, 1905), a peaceful demonstration was violently suppressed by the army, shattering the Tsar’s image as a benevolent father figure and igniting a wave of strikes across the country. The workers’ revolt demanded better working conditions and political reforms. Soviets, or councils, emerged as organs of popular representation. The liberal movement aimed to persuade the Tsar to convene a constituent assembly and establish a parliamentary monarchy. Peasant revolts erupted, demanding land redistribution, and national minorities protested against Russification. The Tsar eventually conceded and established the Duma, a legislative assembly with limited powers and no authority to draft a constitution.
Effects of the 1905 Revolution
Lenin, Trotsky, and the Bolsheviks analyzed the revolution and drew several conclusions. They observed that the bourgeoisie was weak and hesitant, suggesting that the working class could potentially replace it as the leading revolutionary force. The Soviets demonstrated the potential for the Bolsheviks to seize power in a future workers’ state. The peasantry, while generally conservative, could be mobilized for revolutionary action under certain circumstances. The Bolsheviks recognized the need for a disciplined and coordinated movement to replace the existing ineffective and fragmented social and political forces.
Revolution of 1917: Fall of the Tsar
In 1917, strikes resurfaced, demanding peace, bread, and political reforms. On February 23, 1917, a strike in Petrograd led to the establishment of a provisional government headed by Lvov, who was later succeeded by Kerensky. The provisional government aimed to convene a constituent assembly. A period of dual power ensued, with the provisional government sharing authority with popular assemblies (Soviets). Popular sentiment strongly favored ending Russia’s involvement in World War I.
Lenin’s April Theses
Lenin’s April Theses called for the provisional government to end the war, transfer control of production and distribution to the Soviets, and transform the bourgeois republic into a republic of Soviets. These radical proposals initially alienated Lenin from other leftist groups, the right wing, and even some within the working class.
October Revolution
On October 25, 1917, the Bolsheviks launched an armed insurrection against the Kerensky government, seizing strategic locations in Petrograd. Their objective was to hold onto power until revolutions erupted in other parts of Europe, as they believed Russia could not sustain a socialist revolution in isolation.
Social Groups and Demands
Workers sought food, an 8-hour workday, and control over production. Peasants demanded land redistribution and often spontaneously occupied land. National minorities rejected Russian centralism and demanded a federal republic with the right to self-determination.
First Decisions of the Bolsheviks
Land: Land was redistributed among the peasants through the Soviets, allowing poor farmers to acquire small independent farms. Industry: Factory committees were established, banks were nationalized, and an 8-hour workday was implemented. War: The Bolsheviks sought to end Russia’s involvement in World War I through a just peace. They signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in 1918, ceding significant territories in the process. State: The Bolsheviks established the Council of People’s Commissars, a worker-peasant government headed by Lenin and Trotsky. The Bolshevik party and the Soviet government exerted firm control, effectively ending the period of dual power. The Constituent Assembly, convened before the October Revolution, was dissolved by force. The Congress of Soviets assumed legislative power, declared the equality of all peoples of Russia, and recognized their right to self-determination. The Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People (January 1918) proclaimed a universal republic without distinctions between nations. The Soviet constitution established a federation of socialist republics.
The Civil War and its Consequences
The Russian Civil War raged from 1918 to 1921, pitting the Bolsheviks against a diverse coalition of opponents. The White Russian Army comprised various anti-Bolshevik forces. Revolutionary armies consisted of groups marginalized by the Bolsheviks, such as the Socialist-Revolutionary Party and the Ukrainian Southern Army. Peripheral nations saw the war as an opportunity to gain independence from Russia. Allied armies, composed of soldiers from various countries, intervened in the conflict. The Allied intervention aimed to establish a “cordon sanitaire” around Soviet Russia, isolating it economically and diplomatically.