The Second Republic: From Dictatorship to Reform
The Second Republic: From Dictatorship to Republic
Following the resignation of Primo de Rivera, King Alfonso XIII commissioned the formation of a new government under General Dámaso Berenguer. However, a return to the previous dictatorial regime was impossible because:
- The dynastic parties (conservative and liberal) had lost their organizational structure and were discredited during the dictatorship.
- The king was unpopular, as the urban public identified him with the dictator and held him responsible for the situation.
Anti-dynastic forces united in an initiative that culminated in the Pact of San Sebastián.
The Pact of San Sebastián
This pact forged a new alliance between Republicans and those from the monarchical state who had recently converted to the Republican cause, such as Niceto Alcalá-Zamora and Miguel Maura. Socialist Indalecio Prieto and philosopher José Ortega y Gasset also joined. The signatories agreed to:
- The abolition of the monarchy
- The proclamation of the Republic
- The creation of an interim government to convene a Constituent Cortes
The Cortes would be responsible for approving a Constitution and a statute of autonomy for Catalonia, as demanded by the Catalans. Shortly after, the PSOE and the CNT also joined the pact.
The strategy to overthrow the monarchy involved coordinating an uprising of pro-Republican Army units with a general strike on December 15th to highlight the social unrest affecting universities, the press, and other sectors. However, three days prior, Captains Fermín Galán and Ángel García Hernández prematurely launched an uprising in Jaca (Huesca). They were swiftly defeated, court-martialed, and executed on December 14th. The next day, representatives of the Provisional Government of the Republic were arrested in Madrid. The general strike attempt failed, and conspiracies to establish the Republic continued, seemingly without success.
The Proclamation of the Republic
In early 1931, social unrest persisted, while prominent monarchists called for a constituent period. On February 14th, General Berenguer resigned, and Admiral Juan Bautista Aznar became Prime Minister, calling for elections on April 12th. The parties of the Pact of San Sebastián treated these elections as a referendum on the monarchy.
Although monarchist candidates won in rural areas, the results overwhelmingly favored Republican candidates in urban areas. On April 14th, the Provisional Government of the Republic was formed, headed by former royalist and Catholic Niceto Alcalá-Zamora. In Catalonia, Francesc Macià, leader of the newly formed Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya (ERC), proclaimed the Catalan Republic within an Iberian Federation after winning the elections in the Principality. Alfonso XIII went into exile the same day. The Second Republic was a reality, met with widespread popular celebrations.
Biennium Reform (April 14, 1931 – November 19, 1933)
During this period, the government was led by center-left forces, and numerous reforms were proposed.
The Provisional Government (April 14 – June 28, 1931)
Chaired by Niceto Alcalá-Zamora, the Provisional Government called for legislative elections on June 28th and proposed reforms in four key areas: the Army, Church, education, and the countryside.
The Reform of the Army
The Army, traditionally aligned with the monarchy, offered generals and officers retirement with full pay. This measure was taken by 84 out of 170 generals and 8,650 out of 14,000 officers. It reduced the excessive number of commanders and divisions and provided an exit for those whose convictions were incompatible with the Republic. Manuel Azaña, Minister of War, closed the Military Academy of Zaragoza (led by General Francisco Franco) and annulled promotions gained during the dictatorship, causing unease among the military. He also created the Assault Guard, a modern, Republican-loyal police force.
Relations with the Church
Initially, the Church, also linked to the monarchy, adopted a wait-and-see approach. The Vatican advised bishops on the new political situation and maintaining unity for the elections. However, two events strained relations:
- Cardinal Segura, Archbishop of Toledo, issued a pastoral letter critical of the Republic and praising the King. The government requested his removal, but the bishops supported him.
- Convents in Madrid were burned on May 11th by uncontrolled groups after a provocation by a monarchist circle. Similar incidents occurred in Seville and Málaga, with law enforcement appearing passive. A total of 107 religious buildings were affected. Many Catholics began to view the Republic as hostile to their beliefs.
Although some measures were ineffective during the Biennium and later reversed, the Church remained in constant opposition to the Republic. Other government actions opposed by the Church included civil marriage, divorce, public cemeteries, and the Religious Congregations Act, which transferred ownership of temples and monasteries to the state.
Education
The government decreed the creation of 6,750 schools and 7,000 teaching positions, with significant salary increases, and established a network of libraries. This policy continued throughout the Biennium, with 10,000 new primary schools and a 50% increase in the education budget.
Reforms in the Countryside
Spain, at the time of the Republic’s proclamation, was primarily agricultural. A main objective of the first two years was land reform to create a class of small landowners from landless laborers, at the expense of unproductive estates. A technical committee proposed focusing the reform on southern Spain, settling 60,000 to 70,000 landless peasants annually, financed by a progressive income tax. The government also implemented an eight-hour workday in the fields.