The Second Spanish Republic (1931-1933): Reforms and Challenges
The Second Spanish Republic (1931-1933)
The Configuration of the New Regime
Following the Pact of San Sebastián, the provisional government called for elections to the Constituent Cortes on June 28, 1931. The government also promulgated a series of decrees to undertake urgent reforms.
Largo Caballero, socialist and labor minister, issued decrees affecting farm workers, including:
- Equalizing minimum agricultural wages with industrial wages
- Establishing the eight-hour workday in the fields
- Implementing the Municipal Act (preventing recruitment of workers from other towns while local workers were unemployed)
- Implementing the Law of Obligatory Cultivation (requiring landowners to continue farming)
Manuel Azaña, Republican Left and Minister of War, issued the Retirement Law for officers. Officers and commanders of the army who did not swear loyalty to the new republican regime would be retired with full pay. Negotiations were also initiated with Catalan and Basque communities regarding autonomy.
The new republic faced animosity from businessmen and large landowners, as well as from a large part of the army and the Catholic hierarchy. Cardinal Segura, Archbishop of Toledo, expressed opposition to the Republic, leading to anticlerical violence in May 1931. The government’s slow response to the violence and ongoing anarchist strikes created problems for the nascent political system.
The June 28 elections gave a majority to the Republican-Socialist coalition, resulting in an overwhelming victory for the left. The constitution drawn up by the Cortes was therefore more progressive than a significant part of Spain desired.
The Constitution of 1931
The Cortes appointed a Commission to develop a constitution, which was approved in December 1931. The Constitution of 1931 defined the Spanish State as “a republic of workers of all classes.” This Constitution established the following principles:
- Spain was configured as a unitary state but allowed for the establishment of autonomous governments in regions with nationalist consciousness.
- Executive power rested with the Cabinet and the President of the Republic (elected by Congress). The President’s powers were under the control of Congress.
- Legislative power resided in the unicameral Congress of Deputies.
- Universal suffrage was established for men and women aged 23 and older.
- It included a comprehensive bill of rights and freedoms, declaring the separation of church and state and recognizing civil marriage and divorce.
- It allowed for the expropriation of property with compensation and the nationalization of utilities.
The two most controversial articles were:
- Article 26 stipulated that religious orders could not engage in industry, trade, or education. It also dissolved the Society of Jesus and established a deadline for ending the financing of the Church.
- The enfranchisement of women was also controversial. Victoria Kent opposed it, fearing it would strengthen the right, but Clara Campoamor defended it passionately.
The possibility of political autonomy was also debated. The Constitution was adopted by a large majority but did not achieve consensus. Alcalá Zamora, a right-wing Catholic with republican convictions, was appointed President.
The Reforms of the Republican-Socialist Biennium (1931-1933)
During the two years of Republican-Socialist rule, headed by Manuel Azaña, a series of reforms were attempted to modernize Spain. These reforms were hampered by rightist forces and the more radical left.
One problem was the religious question. The government proclaimed freedom of worship, abolished state funding for the Church, allowed divorce and civil marriage, secularized cemeteries, dissolved the Jesuits, and banned religious orders from teaching. This led to opposition from Catholic sectors and violence from radical groups.
Another problem was the autonomic question. Catalonia drafted a statute that was adopted by referendum. It established a Catalan autonomous government with its own parliament and recognized Catalan as a co-official language. Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya won the regional elections, and Francesc Macià was elected president of the Generalitat.
The three major reforms undertaken by the Azaña government were:
- Land reform
- Education reform
- Army reform
Land Reform
Almost half of Spain’s active population worked in agriculture, and in some regions, over 50% of the land was owned by large landowners. The Law on Land Reform aimed to address this:
- Expropriation of farms exceeding 200 hectares of rainfed land or 10 hectares of irrigated land.
- Expropriation of uncultivated or poorly cultivated farms.
- Expropriation of farms that could be irrigated but were not.
- Expropriation of systematically leased farms.
The law was adopted in 1932 but had limited results. Fewer hectares were expropriated than planned, and only 12,000 peasant families were settled. The reform’s failure was due to its complexity, lack of budget, resistance from landowners, and bureaucratic difficulties.
The implementation of agrarian reform had social consequences. Landowners allied with the regime’s enemies, while farmers were disappointed, leading to more radical postures and confrontations with authorities.
Education Reform
The education reform aimed to promote a liberal, secular education system. The focus was on primary education, with 10,000 new schools and 7,000 new teachers. The education budget was expanded by 50%. The government tried to end the dominance of religious education and adopted a mixed model of secular, compulsory, and free schooling.
Educational Missions were created to spread culture in rural areas.
Army Reform
The Azaña government wanted a professional and democratic army. The “Law of Withdrawal of Officers” required all serving officers to pledge commitment to the republican regime and allowed them to retire with full pay. The number of units was reduced, the Zaragoza Military Academy was closed, military regions were reduced, military tribunals were abolished, and promotions were rationalized.
The reform did not achieve all its objectives. The number of retired officers was lower than expected, and the cost of the army decreased at the expense of upgrading weapons and equipment. The law was seen by some as an assault on military tradition and created tension within the army.
Throughout the biennium, there was intense social conflict, not only from the right (General Sanjurjo’s failed coup in 1932) but also from anarchists who saw the Republic as an opportunity for revolution. The socialist FTT also moved towards more radical positions. Strikes, insurrections, and land occupations increased. There were serious confrontations between anarchists and state security forces, notably in Casas Viejas, where the Civil Guard killed twelve peasant anarchists.
The deterioration of public order and Azaña’s discredit, accused of repression against anarchists, led to his resignation in 1933.