The Second Spanish Republic: 1931-1939
The Second Spanish Republic (1931-1939)
The Dawn of the Republic (1931)
Following the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930) and the resignation of General Berenguer, King Alfonso XIII tasked Admiral Aznar with forming a government in 1931. Municipal elections were called, effectively serving as a referendum on the monarchy. On April 12, joint candidacies of republicans and socialists participated in these elections. While monarchist councilors outnumbered Republicans overall, the latter secured victories in major cities. On April 14, the Republic was proclaimed in Eibar (Guipúzcoa), followed by Valencia, Seville, Oviedo, Zaragoza, and Barcelona. Alfonso XIII subsequently left the country. A “Revolutionary Committee,” chaired by Niceto Alcalá-Zamora, assumed power in Madrid and formally proclaimed the Second Republic on the afternoon of April 14.
The Provisional Government and the Constitution of 1931
The “Revolutionary Committee” transitioned into the Provisional Government, led by Alcalá-Zamora and comprising representatives of all signatories of the Pact of San Sebastián. The government focused on three key objectives: maintaining order, implementing urgent measures, and convening elections for a Constituent Parliament to draft a new constitution. These elections, held on June 28, 1931, resulted in a Republican-Socialist victory, with Julián Besteiro elected as President of the Cortes. A commission of legal experts drafted the constitution, which was then reviewed by a committee chaired by Jiménez de Asúa. Inspired by the Weimar Constitution, the new Spanish Constitution was democratic and idealistic, emphasizing popular sovereignty, a comprehensive bill of rights and freedoms, universal suffrage (including women’s suffrage championed by Clara Campoamor), a unicameral legislature (abolishing the Senate), and an independent judiciary with a “Tribunal of Constitutional Guarantees.”
Regional and religious issues proved controversial, particularly the latter. The approval of Articles 26 and 27, addressing the Church’s role in education and property ownership, led to the resignation of Prime Minister Alcalá-Zamora (a Catholic) and other government members. Manuel Azaña temporarily assumed the presidency. The articles were ultimately approved with abstentions from half the Cortes, highlighting the contentious nature of these issues. The Constitution was ratified on December 9, 1931, and Alcalá-Zamora was appointed President of the Republic.
The Two Phases of the Second Republic
The Second Republic can be divided into two distinct phases:
- 1931-1936: This period encompasses three key sub-periods:
- The Leftist Biennium (1931-1933): A period of reformist policies under Azaña.
- The Right-Wing Biennium (1933-1936): A period of conservative governance under the CEDA.
- The Popular Front Government (1936): A short-lived leftist coalition.
- 1936-1939: This period coincides with the Spanish Civil War.
The Leftist Biennium (1931-1933)
President Alcalá-Zamora appointed Manuel Azaña as Prime Minister, forming a government with left-wing socialists and republicans. This government continued the reformist policies initiated by the Provisional Government. Azaña’s motto was to “rectify the course of Spanish history.” However, the government faced significant social, political, and military challenges. Key reforms included:
a. Labor and Social Reform
Continuing the work of Largo Caballero, the government implemented reforms such as:
- Regulation of collective bargaining, the right to strike, and paid holidays.
- Municipal Law requiring employers to prioritize local workers.
- Establishment of labor tribunals composed of employers and workers to improve working conditions, particularly in agriculture.
- Creation of a Labor Inspectorate.
- Public works projects to combat unemployment.
- Establishment of an 8-hour workday in agriculture.
- Increased benefits for pensioners and victims of work-related accidents.
These policies displeased employers, who viewed the power of unions as excessive, and also faced opposition from the anarchist CNT.
b. Educational and Cultural Reform
Addressing Spain’s high illiteracy rate (44%), the government implemented significant educational reforms, aiming to replace the Church’s role with state-led education. Key measures included:
- Adoption of a single, public, compulsory, free, and mixed education model.
- Creation of 10,000 schools and 7,000 teaching positions with increased salaries.
- A 50% increase in the education budget.
- Elimination of religion as a school subject and prohibition of teaching by religious congregations.
These reforms faced opposition from the Church and the right. Challenges included insufficient funding and the inability to fully replace religious schools. Popular culture initiatives like “Educational Missions,” theater companies (including Federico García Lorca’s La Barraca), mobile libraries, and public lectures aimed to promote adult education.
c. Military Reform
Azaña continued military reforms initiated by the Provisional Government, offering officers the choice of swearing allegiance to the Republic or retiring with reduced pay and rank (approximately 7,500 officers left the army). The General Military Academy of Zaragoza, directed by Franco, was closed, and the Law of Jurisdictions (classifying crimes against the army as crimes against the state) was abolished. The government aimed to modernize, professionalize, and democratize the army, ending special privileges and ensuring civilian control. Measures included:
- Abolition of courts of honor, the Supreme Council of War and Navy, and General Captaincies.
- Budget cuts and reorganization of military units.
- Creation of the Assault Guard in 1932 to defend the Republic and maintain public order.
d. Land Reform
This was the most significant reform, given the importance of agriculture in the Spanish economy. With 50% of the population working in agriculture, many as day laborers, and widespread landlordism in Andalusia, Extremadura, and Castile, land redistribution was a key objective. The Law of Agrarian Reform, passed on September 9, 1932, after the suppression of General Sanjurjo’s coup attempt, aimed to redistribute poorly exploited land and provide land to landless peasants. Key objectives included:
- Elimination of large estates (latifundios).
- Penalizing absentee landlords through confiscation.
- Ensuring that land benefited those who worked it.
Expropriated lands included former jurisdictional domains, leased farms exceeding 12 years, and large, uncultivated or poorly cultivated estates. Lands belonging to the grandees were expropriated without compensation, while others received compensation inversely proportional to their landholdings. The Agrarian Reform Institute (IRA) was established to manage the process, but implementation was hampered by bureaucracy, complexity, lack of funds, and landowner opposition. The reform fell short of its targets, leading to both landowner dissatisfaction and peasant unrest.
e. Religious Reform
The government continued to enact laws aimed at reducing the Church’s influence, particularly in education. Key measures included:
- Partial confiscation of Jesuit properties (January 1932).
- Legalization of civil marriage and divorce, and secularization of cemeteries (January 1932).
- Prohibition of teaching activities by religious congregations (June 1933).
- Elimination of state funding for the clergy and religious worship.
These measures, along with earlier actions, led to increased tensions between the Church and the government, further fueled by incidents involving Cardinal Segura, Archbishop of Toledo.
f. State Reform: Regional Autonomy
The “Statute of Núria,” granting significant autonomy to Catalonia, was approved by referendum (99%) and presented to Parliament. Despite opposition from the right and the army, it was approved with some modifications in 1932. Elections in Catalonia resulted in a victory for the Catalan Republican Left, with Francesc Macià elected President of the Generalitat and Lluís Companys as President of the Parliament.
In the Basque Country, the “Statute of Estella,” drafted in 1931, faced opposition due to its provisions allowing relations with the Vatican. The Carlists withdrew their support in 1934, while the PNV, along with left-wing Republicans and Socialists, revived the statute in 1936, eventually achieving its approval. In Galicia, the process was slower, with a plebiscite approving a statute in 1936, but the Civil War prevented its parliamentary ratification. A draft statute for Andalusia, developed in 1933, was not approved due to political changes.
Conflicts and Challenges
The leftist government faced numerous conflicts, including social unrest fueled by both employers and anarchist groups like the FAI, as well as radical elements within the UGT and the Communist Party. Land occupations and strikes were common. The government’s response to these events, including the violent suppression of the Casas Viejas uprising in 1933, led to public outcry and further weakened Azaña’s government.