The Second Spanish Republic and Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship
Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930)
Primo de Rivera, a military figure, lacked a clear fascist ideology but stemmed from regenerationism. His dictatorship presented itself as a transitional phase, intended to last only three years, but ultimately extended to seven. Two governments presided over this period: the Military Directory and the Civilian Directory. Opposition arose from the urban middle classes, students, and intellectuals, as well as peripheral nationalist movements in Galicia, the Basque Country, and Catalonia. The downfall of Rivera’s regime was caused by mounting opposition, disagreements within the military, and the economic crisis of 1929. Lacking support, he was exiled to Paris on January 28th. King Alfonso XIII appointed General Dámaso Berenguer as his successor.
The Second Republic: The Reformist Biennium (1931-1933)
Francesc Macià proclaimed the Republic in Barcelona, along with a Catalan Republic. Later that day, the Republic was also proclaimed in Madrid. The initial provisional government, led by the moderate Niceto Alcalá-Zamora, united all anti-monarchist forces from the Pact of San Sebastián, including former monarchists, republican parties, and the PSOE. Elections in June 1931 resulted in a new government under Manuel Azaña, focused on a reformist constitution. This constitution caused discomfort among landowners due to agrarian reform, the army due to military reform, and the Church due to religious reform. The Republican-Socialist government implemented a significant reform program:
- Army Reform: Reduced the army’s power and influence, aiming to prevent a potential coup against the Republic. Abolished military law jurisdictions.
- Religious Reform: Established a secular state, abolishing religious orders (including the Jesuits) and removing their legal privileges.
- Education Reform: Promoted literacy and aimed to expand access to education for the general population.
- Agrarian Reform: Confiscated uncultivated lands and expropriated land from large estates.
The Second Republic: The Red Biennium (1933-1936)
The reforms faced resistance and failed to achieve their intended goals, leading to public discontent, particularly among the bourgeoisie. The poor economic situation and ongoing problems fueled the rise of right-wing political forces, including Alejandro Lerroux, Alcalá-Zamora, and the CEDA led by José María Gil-Robles. The 1933 elections, with women voting for the first time, saw a divided left and a strengthened right. Lerroux formed a government, restoring some privileges to the Church but pursuing weak policies. This dissatisfied conservatives who desired stronger repressive measures. The political climate became increasingly polarized. The CEDA entered the government, leading to strikes and riots (Casas Viejas, Asturias) and harsh repression. Further reform attempts failed amidst government corruption. Lerroux resigned, prompting new elections in 1936. Both the left (Popular Front coalition) and the right reorganized. The Popular Front narrowly won, returning Azaña to power, followed by Casares Quiroga. They attempted to reinstate the reformist agenda of the first biennium.
The Tragic Week (1909)
In 1909, Berber tribes in the Rif Mountains defeated the Spanish army. The government’s decision to send reinforcements, many of whom were family men, sparked protests in Barcelona. Anarchists, socialists, and republicans initiated a movement against the war in Morocco. A general strike began on July 26, 1909. The government declared a state of war, and guards fired upon demonstrators, wounding women and children. This triggered a popular uprising, with uncontrolled groups burning religious buildings. Barcelona was filled with barricades, and further clashes resulted in fatalities. No political leader claimed responsibility for the anti-clerical and anti-military revolt, which quickly became chaotic. The Tragic Week resulted in 87 deaths, hundreds of injuries, and the burning of seventy religious buildings. The authorities responded with arbitrary and harsh repression, closing workers’ centers and publications, arresting over 200 anarchists, and exiling Republican leaders. Five individuals, including Francisco Ferrer Guardia, accused of intellectually inspiring the events, were executed after military trials. The events strained relations between regionalists and republicans, ending Catalan solidarity. The monarchy was discredited by the repression. Liberals joined the campaign against Prime Minister Antonio Maura, demanding his resignation alongside republicans and socialists. Maura was dismissed. The collaboration between liberals and left-wing parties broke the Pacto del Pardo (1885), the agreement between conservatives and liberals for alternating power.
The Mancomunitat of Catalonia (1914-1925)
The Mancomunitat played a crucial role in coordinating existing services and creating new ones. Professionals and intellectuals from diverse ideologies contributed to this work. Despite limitations, the institution implemented significant modernizing actions and improved public services. In education, it established teacher training colleges and a network of public libraries. A key priority was promoting vocational training through job creation and scientific studies, including the Industrial University. It also focused on heritage preservation, establishing a museums board and a service for cataloging and preserving monuments. Notably, the Institut d’Estudis Catalans, founded by the Barcelona Deputation in 1907, played a key role in cultural normalization, particularly the standardization of Catalan spelling initiated by Pompeu Fabra. The Mancomunitat supported agriculture through experimental crop fields, model farms, technical assistance, and agricultural schools. It also undertook road and railway construction and promoted the expansion of the telephone network and electrification.