The Second Spanish Republic and the Civil War (1931-1939)
The Second Spanish Republic (1931-1936)
A New Beginning
Paradoxically, the Spanish people enthusiastically welcomed the Second Republic despite the challenges of the First Republic. This new era demonstrated the potential for self-governance. While the economic crisis of 1929 initially had a limited impact on Spain, it eventually destabilized the provisional government.
The Proclamation of the Republic
Following the elections on April 12, 1931, the Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed on April 14th. A provisional government, headed by Niceto Alcalá Zamora, was established, and King Alfonso XIII went into exile. The government included three Socialist ministers: Indalecio Prieto, Francisco Largo Caballero, and Fernando de los Ríos.
The Constitution of 1931
The Constituent Cortes, elected in June with a significant victory for the left, drafted a new constitution. This intensely democratic and idealistic document defined Spain as “a republic of workers of all classes.” It renounced war, prohibited the Jesuit order, granted voting rights to women, and regulated the relationship between church and state.
The Reformist Biennium (1931-1933)
In December 1931, Alcalá Zamora was elected President, and Manuel Azaña became Prime Minister, leading an alliance of Republicans and Socialists. Azaña’s government implemented significant reforms, including army reform and the separation of church and state. The latter proved controversial, alienating many Catholics. He also addressed the Catalan autonomy issue with a Statute approved in 1932. While social reforms improved living standards, Azaña’s government faced opposition from monarchists, the far-right, and anarchists. The ambitious reform agenda ultimately contributed to instability.
The Second Biennium (1933-1936)
Azaña’s defeat in the November 1933 elections brought the Catholic right to power. The CEDA, led by José María Gil-Robles, became the dominant party. In October 1934, CEDA’s entry into the cabinet triggered protests and strikes. The events in Catalonia and Asturias were particularly severe. Lluís Companys, President of the Generalitat of Catalonia, proclaimed a Catalan State within a Federal Spanish Republic. The Asturian miners’ revolt resulted in over 1,000 deaths and 30,000 arrests. This period of instability hindered effective governance.
The Popular Front Elections (1936)
The 1936 elections presented a final opportunity for the Second Republic. The Popular Front, a coalition of leftist forces, aimed to restore the achievements of the first biennium. The election results were close, reflecting a deeply divided Spain. The Popular Front, led by Azaña, secured a narrow victory. However, the government faced immense challenges, including right-wing conspiracies and escalating public disorder. The assassination of José Calvo Sotelo, a prominent monarchist politician, further fueled tensions and ultimately led to the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War.
The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
The Uprising
The poorly organized military uprising began in Spanish Morocco on July 17, 1936, under the leadership of General Francisco Franco. On July 18th, the rebellion spread to mainland Spain. The rebels, led by General Emilio Mola, achieved swift victories in Navarre and Old Castile. The outcome varied across regions, with the rebels gaining control in some areas while the Republican government held others. Madrid and Barcelona remained under Republican control.
Phases of the War
The War of Columns (July-November 1936)
The initial phase saw fluid front lines and a scramble for control. Franco advanced from Seville towards Madrid. The Popular Front’s progress from Catalonia and Aragon towards the capital was halted. By November 1936, the war had become an international concern, with both sides receiving foreign aid.
Foreign Intervention
The Republicans received support from the Soviet Union, France, and the International Brigades. Franco’s side received crucial assistance from Italy and Germany. While the overall level of aid was comparable, the timing and effectiveness of the Nationalist support proved decisive.
The Battle of Madrid (November 1936-March 1937)
Franco’s attempts to capture Madrid were unsuccessful despite Italian support. He shifted his focus to the northern front.
The Fall of the Northern Front (April-October 1937)
Franco’s capture of Vizcaya proved decisive in the fall of the northern front. The German Condor Legion’s bombing of Guernica and Durango became infamous examples of the war’s brutality. The conquest of Santander was swift, but the mountainous terrain of Asturias posed a greater challenge.
Teruel and the Advance towards the Mediterranean (December 1937-June 1938)
The Popular Front’s capture of Teruel was a temporary victory. Franco retook the city and advanced towards Valencia, cutting off Catalonia. His progress stalled in the Maestrazgo region.
The Battle of the Ebro and the Collapse of Catalonia (July 1938-February 1939)
The Popular Front’s offensive across the Ebro River was a costly failure. Franco’s forces occupied Catalonia in February 1939. The war concluded with internal conflict within the Republican side, as Communists clashed with other factions. Franco demanded unconditional surrender and declared victory on April 1, 1939.
Evolution of the Two Sides
Repression and the Role of the Church
Both sides engaged in brutal repression, targeting political opponents and perceived enemies. The rebels killed Republicans, Freemasons, and intellectuals, while the Popular Front targeted priests, military personnel, and right-wing politicians. The Catholic Church largely supported Franco, although Basque nationalists sided with the Republic.
Franco’s Leadership and Nationalist Unity
Franco’s leadership was not initially undisputed. Following the death of General José Sanjurjo, Franco emerged as the dominant figure. He consolidated his power by merging the Carlists and Falangists into a single party in 1937. His brother-in-law, Ramón Serrano Súñer, played a key role in the Nationalist government.
Republican Divisions
The Republican side was plagued by internal divisions. Largo Caballero’s government included anarchists, but his policies were less revolutionary than some had hoped. In May 1937, a conflict in Barcelona between different Republican factions resulted in hundreds of deaths. Juan Negrín, a moderate socialist, succeeded Caballero and attempted to unify the Republican side, but faced opposition from various factions.
The Balance of the Civil War
From a military perspective, the Spanish Civil War reflected the limitations of a poor country. The Popular Front squandered its initial advantages. Franco’s army demonstrated greater maneuverability. Politically, the war was a struggle for popular support on both sides. However, the Nationalists achieved greater unity, which ultimately proved decisive in their victory.