The Second Spanish Republic: From Dictatorship to Civil War
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera and the End of the Alfonsine Monarchy
Rise and Principles of the Regime
In 1923, Miguel Primo de Rivera, Captain General of Barcelona, staged a coup without opposition from other soldiers. He took over as head of government while King Alfonso XIII remained as head of state, implementing a dictatorial regime. The Constitution of 1876 was abolished, along with the democratic system, unions, and many freedoms and rights.
Primo de Rivera’s regime may have resembled Mussolini’s fascist government, which had risen to power a year earlier, but their objectives were different. Primo de Rivera’s approach was regeneracionista, aiming to solve the crisis of political corruption, unemployment, and the military disaster in Morocco.
Dictatorship: Military and Civilian Directorates
Primo de Rivera’s government can be divided into two stages: the military directory (1923-1925) and the civilian directory (1925-1930).
Military Directory
Initially, all government positions were occupied by soldiers. Primo de Rivera envisioned his dictatorship as a transitional period to ease the crisis before resuming constitutional rule.
During this stage, he organized a joint expedition with France to Morocco. After the Alhucemas landing and the capture of Abd-el-Krim, the rebellion ended. Economically, he promoted public works like road construction, wetland creation, and irrigation system reorganization. State monopolies like Campsa and Tabacalera were created to control gasoline and tobacco supply. This policy led to significant state debt. Social unrest declined due to apparent economic prosperity and the suppression of strikes, demonstrations, and unions.
Civil Directory
As the regime lasted longer than expected, Primo de Rivera began appointing civilians to improve its image. He created institutions like the National Consultative Assembly and corporations, similar to labor unions but controlled by the Patriotic Union (the regime’s single party). These measures had limited success.
Support, Opposition, and the Regime’s End
Initially, the discourse of regeneration, economic recovery, and improved working-class conditions generated some support from parties and unions like the PSOE and UGT. However, this support waned as the situation failed to improve.
The CNT never supported the dictatorship, nor did intellectuals like Ortega y Gasset. The army also opposed it, rising up during the Sanjuanada (1926). Only the upper classes and parts of the army fully supported the regime.
In late 1929, the effects of the international crisis reached Spain. In January 1930, Primo de Rivera resigned and went into exile in France.
King Alfonso XIII appointed General Berenguer as prime minister to restore constitutional rule. However, Berenguer resigned in late 1930 and was replaced by Admiral Aznar. Meanwhile, underground Republican parties signed the Pact of San Sebastian, aiming to abolish the monarchy and establish a republic. The CNT’s political arm, the FAI, also emerged.
Aznar legalized political parties and called for municipal elections on April 12, 1931. Republican parties won in major cities. On April 14, people took to the streets and proclaimed the Second Republic. King Alfonso XIII went into exile.
The Constitution of 1931 and the Reformist Biennium
The Constitution
Following the Republican victory in the July 1931 municipal elections, the Second Republic was proclaimed on April 14th. A provisional government led by Niceto Alcalá Zamora was established, with the position of the exiled king replaced by the President of the Republic. Elections were held for a constitutional parliament, with center-left parties (including the Socialist and Republican Left parties) winning a majority.
In December 1931, a new constitution was promulgated, influenced by center-left ideology. This immediately drew opposition from conservative groups who disagreed on religion and autonomy. The constitution:
- Recognized universal suffrage for men and women, and the principle of national sovereignty.
- Allocated powers to the judicial, legislative (Courts), and executive (President of the Republic) branches.
- Declared a secular state, separating church and state, and prohibiting the church from engaging in business or education.
- Recognized full rights and freedoms, with private property subject to expropriation.
- Granted autonomy to some regions.
The Reformist Biennium (1931-1933)
During this period, Niceto Alcalá Zamora was President of the Republic and Manuel Azaña was President of the Government. Controversial measures included army reform, reducing senior positions (mostly held by anti-Republicans), closing the Zaragoza Academy, and abolishing courts of honor and the Law of Jurisdictions.
An agrarian reform law was enacted to expropriate uncultivated land from large landowners and distribute it to peasants. However, the government’s inherited deficit and the 1929 crash slowed implementation, leading to peasant revolts (especially in Andalusia). The Casa Viejas revolt, where peasants seized the town council, was brutally suppressed. The Law of Obligatory Cultivation was then enacted, forcing landowners to hire local laborers. To improve the proletariat’s situation, the maximum work week was reduced to 48 hours and a minimum wage was established.
Restrictions were imposed on the Church, including prohibiting teaching, withdrawing financial support, and expelling the Jesuits. Secular state education was promoted, with educational missions (libraries, public theaters) traveling through villages. The Divorce Act and civil marriages were approved. The Catalan Statute of Autonomy was drafted and approved in 1932, while the Galician and Basque statutes were delayed.
In 1932, General Sanjurjo led a failed coup, succeeding only in Seville, and was exiled. In 1933, the government faced a crisis due to its failed reform policies. Parliament was dissolved, and elections were called, resulting in a center-right coalition victory, ushering in the Radical-CEDA Biennium.
The Radical-CEDA Biennium and the 1936 Elections
The Radical-CEDA Biennium (1933-1936)
Following the 1933 elections, a coalition formed by the Radical Party (Alejandro Lerroux) and the CEDA (José María Gil-Robles) won. Lerroux became President of the Government, while Niceto Alcalá Zamora remained President of the Republic.
This coalition aimed to revise the 1931 Constitution (particularly regarding the Church and autonomy) but failed. They enacted decrees that:
- Slowed land reform and returned land that hadn’t been distributed.
- Halted the drafting of the Basque and Galician autonomy statutes.
- Restored the Church’s budget and reinstated the Jesuits.
- Granted amnesty to participants in the Sanjurjo coup.
The PSOE and UGT responded with unrest, including the 1934 General Strike, particularly impactful in Asturias’ mining region. The government sent the African Army (led by Franco) to quell the riots, leading to violent clashes. Unrest spread to Madrid and Catalonia, with the government revoking Catalonia’s autonomy. These conflicts boosted support for extremist parties on both the left (labor parties) and the far-right (JONS and Falange).
The 1936 Elections and the Popular Front
Public discontent, fueled by government corruption, led to a political crisis in late 1935. Alcalá Zamora dissolved Parliament and called for new elections. In February 1936, a left-wing coalition called the Popular Front won. It comprised the Republican Left, PSOE, Communist Party, and Esquerra Republicana.
Manuel Azaña replaced Alcalá Zamora as President of the Republic, and Santiago Casares Quiroga became President of the Government. Measures were taken to restore the Reform Biennium’s policies, including withdrawing support for the Church, expelling the Jesuits, and restarting land reform. Amnesty was granted to prisoners from the October Revolution.
In February and March 1936, the UGT (supported by the PSOE) occupied land to accelerate land reform, while wealthy landowners hired gunmen for protection. This latent conflict escalated as some military figures (including Franco, Mola, Sanjurjo, Queipo de Llano, and Goded) and political parties plotted a coup. General Mola led the group, aiming for a transitional dictatorship, while the CEDA and Carlists sought a monarchy, and the Falange a fascist dictatorship.
Following clashes between extremist groups, Lieutenant Castillo was killed by right-wing extremists. The left retaliated by assassinating Calvo Sotelo, a right-wing Catholic leader. This further radicalized elements within the PSOE, Communist Party, and anarchists on the left, and the far-right. On July 17, 1936, the military launched an uprising in Africa, which spread to the mainland as a coup on July 18th. As it failed to succeed in all territories, the Spanish Civil War began.