The Second Spanish Republic: From Dictatorship to Democracy
The Decline of the Restoration Regime (1917-1923)
Political and Social Instability
Following World War I, Spain faced a period of escalating political and social unrest. The Restoration regime, plagued by instability, struggled to address issues such as the rise of organized labor, union struggles, and colonial failures in Morocco.
Desperate attempts by dynastic parties to maintain power resulted in short-lived, ineffective governments. Despite resorting to electoral fraud, no single party could secure a parliamentary majority, leading to emergency measures, suspension of constitutional guarantees, and the closure of Parliament.
The Rise of the Army and Opposition
Amidst the political turmoil, the army’s influence grew significantly. Opposition parties, including the strengthening unions like the CNT, gained traction. In Andalusia, the dire conditions of the peasantry led to the anarchist-led “Bolshevik Triennium,” a peasant revolt met with repression.
Barcelona witnessed a major strike in 1919 by the Canadian company supplying electricity. While initially successful in securing worker demands, the employer’s failure to reinstate dismissed workers reignited the conflict, leading to further repression against unions.
Political Fragmentation and Violence
The PSOE experienced a split, with a minority faction forming the PCE in 1921. Anarchist groups engaged in violent actions against authorities and employers, including the assassination of Eduardo Dato. In response, employers formed the Employers’ Federation and hired gunmen to target labor leaders.
The period between 1917 and 1923, known as the “pistolerismo,” saw over 800 attacks and 226 deaths. Adding to the chaos was the disastrous Annual military campaign in Morocco, resulting in nearly 13,000 casualties.
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930)
The Coup and the Military Directory
On September 13, 1923, General Miguel Primo de Rivera launched a coup, establishing a military directory with the stated aim of saving the nation and ending political corruption. King Alfonso XIII, seeking a solution to the crisis, appointed Primo de Rivera as Prime Minister with full powers.
The dictatorship abolished constitutional institutions (except the Crown), suspended political parties and unions, and cracked down on extremist groups. Primo de Rivera aimed to restore order, address the Moroccan conflict, and improve public life.
Policies and Achievements
The dictatorship achieved some success in pacifying Morocco and restoring law and order. An expanding economy, fueled by protectionism and a favorable international climate, further bolstered the regime’s popularity.
In 1925, Primo de Rivera replaced the military directory with a civilian one and created a National Consultative Assembly. The Corporate Organization of Work was established, recognizing freedom of association, along with Joint Committees to regulate labor relations.
The regime implemented an expansionary economic policy, investing in infrastructure projects. However, this was largely financed by foreign loans, making the economy vulnerable to external shocks.
Growing Opposition and the End of the Dictatorship
Despite initial successes, opposition to the dictatorship grew. A failed coup attempt in 1926, known as the “Sanjuanada,” highlighted the discontent among liberals and the military. Intellectuals, Republicans, and the CNT gained strength, while the PSOE and UGT withdrew their support.
The stock market crash of 1929 severely impacted the Spanish economy, cutting off American credit and exposing the regime’s financial fragility. Facing mounting opposition and losing the support of the army, Primo de Rivera resigned on January 28, 1930.
The Transition to the Second Republic (1930-1931)
The Berenguer Government and the “Dictablanda”
Following Primo de Rivera’s resignation, General Dámaso Berenguer was tasked with restoring constitutional normality. Censorship was lifted, exiles were allowed to return, and political parties were permitted to operate.
However, the slow pace of reform led to public discontent with the “dictablanda” (soft dictatorship). Opposition groups, including Republicans, Catalan and Galician nationalists, socialists, and even monarchists, formed the Pact of San Sebastián in August 1930, aiming to establish a republican government.
The Jaca Uprising and the Aznar Government
In December 1930, a military uprising in Jaca, led by Captains Fermín Galán and Ángel García Hernández, attempted to proclaim a republic but was swiftly crushed. The Berenguer government resigned, and Admiral Juan Bautista Aznar formed a new government under Alfonso XIII.
Municipal elections were called for April 12, 1931, effectively serving as a referendum on the monarchy. While monarchists won overall, Republicans triumphed in major cities. On April 14, 1931, the Second Republic was proclaimed in Eibar, followed by other cities across Spain. Alfonso XIII went into exile, marking the end of the monarchy and the beginning of the Second Spanish Republic.