The Second Spanish Republic: From Reform to Civil War
1. Introduction
The Second Spanish Republic faced significant challenges from its inception. Left-leaning reforms created an environment of instability, fueling opposition from powerful sectors like the Church, army, landowners, and employers. These groups, negatively impacted by the reforms, gradually reorganized the right-wing monarchy, while more extreme factions formed authoritarian organizations. The right-wing monarchists, conspiring with the army (Sanjurjo), launched an uprising in 1932. The clandestine Spanish Military Union (UME), a right-wing, anti-reform military organization, was created in 1933. Simultaneously, the extreme left, including anarchists, the UGT, and communists, protested against slow agrarian reform, unemployment, and harsh living conditions. The Casas Viejas uprising (Cádiz) discredited the government. The CNT saw the Republic as an opportunity to promote revolution, fostering labor unrest, peasant uprisings, and the establishment of libertarian communes to dismantle the bourgeois order. In 1933, the CEDA (Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Right-wing Groups) emerged, comprised of Alfonsine monarchists, Carlists, and some fascist groups, collaborating with Lerroux’s radicals.
2. The Radical-Cedista Biennium (1933-1935)
The November 1933 elections, the first with female suffrage, saw a victory for the right. The left was disunited, while the right coalesced around the CEDA. Alcalá-Zamora became president. Wary of the CEDA and Gil-Robles, he directed Lerroux’s Radical party to form a government. Three CEDA ministers joined the government on October 1, 1934, openly sympathetic to fascism. The government focused on reversing prior reforms. Land was returned to the nobility, the wages law was repealed, and General Sanjurjo and his collaborators were granted amnesty. The Society of Jesus returned, and the clergy received subsidies. As Minister of Defense, Gil-Robles promoted conservative military leaders like Franco and Mola. The increasingly authoritarian CEDA ministers alarmed the left, leading to a general strike. On October 7, part of the PSOE launched a coup, threatening civil war. The coup, involving a “Red Army” of 30,000 men, aimed to seize Madrid. The uprising resulted in 4,000 deaths, including 35 priests. It largely failed, except in Asturias and parts of Catalonia.
2.1 The 1934 Revolution
The October Revolution was encouraged by PSOE and UGT leaders like Largo Caballero and Indalecio Prieto, with uneven participation from the CNT and PCE. The revolutionaries attempted to assault the Prime Minister’s office, but loyalist forces prevailed, arresting socialist leaders. In Aragon, Andalusia, and Extremadura, exhausted from previous strikes, peasants did not support the uprising.
2.1.1 Asturias (October 17-19, 1934)
Miners affiliated with the CNT, UGT, and PCE launched a revolution in Asturias. They seized weapons, formed revolutionary committees, and controlled essential services. They occupied mines and besieged Oviedo, briefly establishing a small, organized state. The government dispatched the Army of Africa, led by General Franco, to restore order. The repression was brutal, with 1,000 dead, thousands arrested, and numerous death sentences.
2.1.2 Catalonia (October 6, 1934)
The strike failed in Catalonia. President Lluís Companys, concerned by the right-wing government, proclaimed the Catalan State within the Spanish Republic, inviting the opposition to form a provisional government. The insurrection, supported by armed militia, resulted in 40 deaths. The Madrid government deemed it a separatist act. Barcelona was occupied, the Catalan government and City Council arrested, and Companys sentenced to 30 years in prison. Catalan autonomy was suspended.
In Madrid, Azaña, Largo Caballero, and other leftist leaders were arrested. Gil-Robles aimed to amend the 1931 constitution, restricting autonomy, abolishing divorce, and preventing property socialization. A government crisis ensued, further destabilizing the Republic. Political unrest and clashes intensified, exacerbated by corruption among Lerroux’s ministers. In December, President Alcalá-Zamora dissolved parliament and called for new elections to curb the increasingly authoritarian right.
3. The Popular Front and the Road to Civil War
With the rise of fascism in Europe, the left formed the Popular Front, a coalition of Republicans, Socialists, and Communists. The CNT, while not participating, called for votes for the Front. Their program promised amnesty for political prisoners and a return to the left-leaning reforms. The February 1936 elections gave the Popular Front victory with over 60% of the vote. This polarized Spain between fascism and socialism-communism. The far-right rejected the result and began conspiring against the Republic. Alcalá-Zamora, deemed too conservative, was replaced by Azaña as president. Social tensions escalated. The CNT-FAI occupied estates, and strikes increased. Landowners and industrialists responded by closing factories and moving capital abroad. Fascist groups hired gunmen, and some encouraged a military coup. Azaña became Prime Minister in February 1936, but resigned and was appointed President in May. Casares Quiroga formed a new government, granting amnesty to those involved in the 1934 Revolution and re-implementing left-wing reforms. To prevent a coup, some generals were reassigned. The Falange gained prominence, resorting to street violence. Between February and June 1936, significant unrest occurred. The Popular Front government claimed to be overwhelmed by escalating violence between left and right-wing radicals.
3.1 Conclusion: Towards Civil War
Following the February 1936 elections, General Franco attempted to declare a state of war. In March, several generals (Mola, Goded, Varela) planned an uprising to “restore order.” General Mola led the conspiracy, planning simultaneous uprisings in key garrisons, including Madrid and Barcelona, with the Army of Africa as a reserve force under Franco’s command. Mola intended for General Sanjurjo to lead the new regime. The conspirators aimed to establish a military dictatorship to eliminate the perceived threat of revolution posed by the Popular Front. German and Italian aid was secured. The Carlists and Falange also had their own plans. The assassination of José Calvo Sotelo on July 13, 1936, following the murder of José Castillo, is often cited as the trigger for the Civil War, which began on July 17. However, the uprising was already planned. The coup began in Morocco and spread to the mainland, ultimately plunging Spain into a three-year civil war.