The Second Spanish Republic: Reforms, Conflicts, and the Path to Civil War
The Second Spanish Republic (1931-1936)
The Reform Biennium (1931-1933)
Problems of the Republic
The first priority was addressing outstanding issues from the previous era: military, religious, educational, and agrarian problems.
The Military Problem
Manuel Azaña, the new Minister of War, aimed to reduce military overspending and the excessive number of officers. He enacted a law allowing nearly half of the officers to retire. Judicial bodies dissolved army units deemed a threat to civilian authority, and commanders considered hostile to the Republic were replaced.
Religious and Educational Issues
The new Constitution separated church and state. In the following years, payments to priests were abolished, religious orders were forbidden from teaching, the Society of Jesus was dissolved, and civil marriage, divorce, and burial were introduced. Promoting secular education in a secular state was a key objective. The state took full responsibility for public schools and allocated significant investments to them.
Agrarian Reform
This reform addressed the problem of landless agricultural laborers and the concentration of land ownership among a few wealthy families. A decree expropriated uncultivated large estates and redistributed them to landless peasants. Labor law reforms, led by Largo Caballero, were also initiated.
The Opposition to the Reforms
Right-Wing Opposition
From the Republic’s proclamation, the Constitution and reforms faced opposition from large landowners, the Catholic Church, and the upper and middle classes, who felt their interests threatened. A coup attempt was thwarted by the government, but right-wing forces regrouped, forming the Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Rights. A new fascist group, the Spanish Falange, led by José Antonio Primo de Rivera, also emerged.
Left-Wing Opposition
The slow pace of some reforms exacerbated tensions among the working class. The UGT and anarchist groups radicalized, advocating armed insurrection and staging uprisings.
The Conservative Biennium (1934-1936)
Right-Wing Governments
The head of government resigned, the President dissolved the Cortes, and new elections were called. The right won, initiating a dismantling of the previous biennium’s work. Land reform stalled, and amnesty was granted to the Sanjurjo coup rebels. This led to further radicalization of left-wing groups.
The Popular Front
To counter the right in the next elections, a broad coalition was formed, ranging from the revolutionary left to the center-left. The Popular Front narrowly won, and Manuel Azaña became President. The reform program of the first biennium was reinstated, and the autonomy process for the Basque Country and Galicia was restarted. This triggered social confrontation and violence between left and right, culminating in the assassination of MP Calvo Sotelo. Conservative forces decided to halt the Republic’s reforms.
The Primo de Rivera Dictatorship (1923-1930)
On September 13, 1923, Primo de Rivera, defying constitutional legality, declared a state of war and seized power for the military. The dictatorship lasted seven years, with two phases: the Military Directorate (1923-25) and the Civil Directory (1925-30). The coup’s justifications were a “blocked and discredited constitutional system” and the threat of social revolution. Political regeneration was a primary objective. Primo de Rivera implemented a Municipal Statute and a Provincial Statute, aiming to eliminate political patronage. He created the Patriotic Union party. Opposition came from Republicans, communists, anarchists, some military sectors, and intellectuals. Established parties criticized the monarchy’s extended rule, and some leaders participated in conspiracies. Fearing the dictatorship’s growing popularity would damage the monarchy, Alfonso XIII withdrew his support, and Primo de Rivera resigned in January 1930. General Berenguer attempted a transition back to constitutional normalcy, but its slow pace fueled discontent. The opposition organized, and in February 1931, the Aznar government called elections, which resulted in a Republican victory.