The Sociology of Crime and Deviance: A Comprehensive Overview

Posted on Nov 8, 2024 in Psychology and Sociology

Work Sociology: Crime and Deviance

1. Explain the meaning of the phrase “conformity and deviation are part of an inseparable pair.”

Conformity and deviance are two sides of the same coin. They cannot be separated because there’s no universally agreed-upon definition of “normal” behavior or conformity. A behavior is defined as deviant in relation to the existing norms of a society. In essence, deviance is the opposite of conformity.

2. What is the function of justice and punishment for C. Beccaria? What is the utilitarian conception of punishment?

For Cesare Beccaria, the function of justice is to safeguard individual liberties. Punishment serves to deter individuals from committing crimes by instilling fear of consequences. The utilitarian view of punishment emphasizes that it should create fear of sanctions and anticipate the pain a potential offender might experience, thereby preventing them from engaging in criminal acts.

3. State the three principles of reasonableness of the sentence made by C. Beccaria that form the basis of modern criminal law.

Rationality of the sentence
Proportionality of the penalty
Legislative origin of the penalty regime

4. Which author, belonging to the “moral statistics” school, first used the concept of the “average man” and understood delinquency as a fixed rate that society must pay annually, with the inclination towards crime existing at all levels of society?

Adolphe Quetelet

5. In general, what is the methodological contribution of the Quetelet school to criminal anthropology?

Statistics

6. Summarize the contributions of Beccaria, Lombroso, and Quetelet and their relationship to criminal behavior.

Beccaria: Viewed criminal behavior as rational and driven by self-interest. Individuals are free to choose whether to commit a crime. He advocated for a criminal justice system established by public authorities to combat crime.
Quetelet: Believed the causes of criminal behavior were social and occurred at a predictable rate based on the social environment. He suggested that public authorities should study these patterns to control criminal behavior.
Lombroso: Championed the biological approach (the “born criminal”), arguing that criminal tendencies are inherited. He categorized criminals based on physical traits and viewed crime as a pathological behavior.

7. What is deviation? List two examples.

Deviation is conduct that violates the rules imposed by society, particularly when it breaks established legal codes. Examples include:

Mistreating animals for entertainment
Starting forest fires

8. What do we mean by the phrase “deviation is universal?” List two examples.

Deviation is universal because it’s linked to human behavior and affects everyone. All societies have rules that govern social life and define acceptable and unacceptable conduct. Deviation is culturally specific, meaning what’s considered deviant varies across cultures. Examples include:

In some Native American cultures, hunting is solely for sustenance, and killing animals for pleasure is considered deviant.
Laws prohibiting talking on the phone while driving aim to prevent and punish this deviant behavior.

9. What is the crucial difference between a criminal or police vision of crime and the sociological view?

The criminal or police perspective focuses on enforcing sanctions and corrective actions against individuals who engage in criminal behavior as defined by legal codes. Sociology, on the other hand, studies crime as a form of deviance in relation to established norms, whether legal or not. It seeks to understand the reasons for deviation by examining the role of institutions in creating rules and enforcing sanctions.

10. What does it mean that “deviation is a matter of social definition?”

Deviation is socially defined because it’s society that establishes the norms and values that its members are expected to uphold. These norms are essential for the existence and continuation of society. Since conformity and deviation are intertwined, society defines deviance as any behavior that violates these norms and warrants punishment or disapproval.

11. Mr. A witnesses someone robbing a bank. After asking the robber to stop, Mr. A shoots and wounds the assailant. Explain how this act can be considered both licit and illicit.

Illicit: The bank robber’s act is illegal because it violates established norms (the penal code) that define theft with violence and intimidation as a crime.
Licit: Mr. A’s act could be considered lawful if it’s deemed self-defense or defense of others. If the robber posed an immediate threat to the lives of others, and Mr. A’s actions were proportionate to the threat, it might be considered justifiable under the law.

Sociology of Deviance: Unit 3

1. Explain why, for E. Durkheim, crime is a “normal social fact.”

Durkheim considered crime a “normal social fact” because he equated it with deviant behavior (contrary to rules), which occurs in all societies. He argued that the existence of crime is inevitable in any society, making it a normal aspect of social life.

2. For Durkheim, normal and pathological are two sides of a functional complex that realizes the process of social change. Explain Durkheim’s approach with two modern examples: gender violence and inequality in the wages of women workers.

Gender-based violence: This is now considered pathological behavior because society has decided to punish it, even though it was accepted as normal in the past. Sanctions and corrective measures are implemented to address and eradicate it.
Wage inequality for women: This was previously considered a normal social fact. However, deviant behaviors like feminist demonstrations have led to social change (e.g., the adoption of laws promoting gender equality) to correct it.

3. Differentiate between the conceptions of E. Durkheim and M. Weber on social deviance.

Durkheim: Believed that all societies are governed by universal norms accepted by their members, and any behavior that deviates from these norms should be punished or corrected. However, he acknowledged that some deviant behaviors can lead to positive social change and modernization.
Weber: Argued that in every society, a group monopolizes power. When a member of society challenges the dominant group and its social order, deviant behavior occurs, leading to a conflict where the winner imposes their social order.

4. What are the positive social functions of deviation?

The positive role of social deviance is that by challenging the established order, it can lead to social change. Deviant behavior can highlight the need for social adaptation and modernization by demonstrating that not all members of society agree with the existing rules.

5. Explain the relationship between deviance and social change. Provide examples.

Deviant behavior can be a catalyst for social change. By demonstrating that not all members of society agree with the rules, it can potentially lead to changes within the social order, promoting its adaptation to the needs of its members. Examples include:

The demonstrations and actions carried out by Greenpeace to confront whaling ships and raise awareness about the killing of endangered species.
The Civil Rights Movement in the United States, where acts of civil disobedience challenged segregation and discrimination, ultimately leading to significant legal and social changes.

6. What do we mean when we say that deviation serves to increase the cohesion of the social group? Provide examples.

From a relativistic perspective, deviation can strengthen group cohesion by reinforcing the importance of shared norms. When a member violates these norms and is sanctioned or criticized, it reaffirms the group’s commitment to its values and strengthens its unity. Examples include:

In a classroom setting, maintaining polite behavior is expected. Students who display disruptive or disrespectful behavior may face sanctions, reinforcing the importance of good conduct and promoting cohesion among the well-behaved students.
In a sports team, adhering to the rules and strategies is crucial for success. Players who deviate from these norms may be penalized or ostracized, strengthening the team’s commitment to its shared goals and fostering unity among the compliant members.

7. Here are two examples of deviance. Indicate how each can produce some positive effect on society. A) A group of gays and lesbians block traffic in Madrid. B) A tax evader is sent to prison.

A) This deviant behavior (demonstration obstructing traffic) can have a positive effect if it raises awareness about the group’s demands and leads to social change, such as the recognition of their rights and societal adaptation.
B) This can have a positive effect by deterring others from tax evasion. It reinforces the importance of complying with legal obligations to contribute to public spending and encourages compliance through fear of punishment.

Sociology of Deviation: Unit 3

1. Briefly explain the theory of “dual socialization.” Apply it to the example of the legal profession.

The theory of dual socialization suggests that within the broader societal rules, there are subgroups with their own unique norms. Members of these subgroups may engage in behaviors that deviate from the general societal rules but are considered normal within the subgroup. Example: In the legal profession, lawyers may advise clients on how to minimize their tax burden, even if it pushes the boundaries of legality. This behavior might be considered deviant in the broader society but is accepted as normal within the legal profession.

2. Explain the phrase “the criminal is considered the victim of a social pathology,” referring to the therapeutic purpose of the founders of the Chicago School.

The Chicago School sociologists believed that societal issues, such as inequalities between social classes, contribute to criminal behavior. They viewed criminals as victims of these social pathologies. Their therapeutic purpose was to identify and address these social problems to reduce crime rates.

3. An infringement can be viewed as a legal fact or a social fact. Explain the differences and why the former leads to causal theories of deviance, while the latter leads to comprehensive theories.

Legal fact: This perspective focuses on acts that violate established laws and are punishable by authorities. It aligns with causal theories of deviance, which seek to explain the causes of predefined criminal behaviors.
Social fact: This perspective views an infringement as an act that challenges our understanding of normality. It aligns with comprehensive theories of deviance, which aim to understand why certain behaviors are labeled as deviant by society and explore the social reactions that define an act as criminal.

4. What is the fundamental difference between causal theories and comprehensive theories of deviance?

Causal theories primarily focus on identifying and explaining the causes of predefined criminal behaviors, often using quantitative methods. Comprehensive theories, on the other hand, seek to understand the social processes that define certain behaviors as deviant and explore the reasons behind these definitions, considering the social reactions and labeling involved.

5. Since the mid-1850s, five notable features of crime have been established. What are they?

Constant
Male
Young
Urban
Committed by the needy

6. Explain the critical view of crime statistics, which argues that “the figures only account for the activity of the police services and justice.”

This critical view suggests that crime statistics primarily reflect the activities of law enforcement and the justice system, rather than providing a complete picture of the nature and meaning of crime itself. They may be influenced by factors such as policing practices, reporting rates, and biases within the criminal justice system.

7. What is the tendency to crime according to Quetelet, Lombroso, Tarde, and Beccaria?

Quetelet: Believed the tendency to crime was based on probability, determined by social factors and deviations from established norms.
Lombroso: Argued that the tendency to crime was inherited and inherent in the physical constitution of individuals.
Tarde: Suggested that criminal habits were acquired through imitation and repeated contact with other offenders.
Beccaria: Proposed that the tendency to crime was primarily a result of the nature of the penal system, which defines offenses and their corresponding penalties.

Sociology of Deviation: Unit 4

1. What are the criminal tendencies for Glueck?

For Glueck, criminal tendencies are an individual’s mental predisposition towards crime, and their emergence is a prerequisite for subsequent involvement in criminal activity.

2. What is meant by “the affirmation of Glueck, referring to the early onset of criminal tendency, suffers the problems of bias in the retrospective construction itself?“

Glueck’s definition of criminal tendencies includes behaviors like theft, truancy, disobedience to parents, staying out late, and early smoking, which are often referred to as “status offenses.” The question arises whether these generalized behaviors can be considered reliable indicators of future criminality. When reconstructing an offender’s life history retrospectively, this data might be used as partial indicators of future criminality, potentially leading to bias in the assessment.

3. What is the thesis of the precocity of the Glueck?

The precocity thesis suggests that certain individuals possess a higher “crime potential” than others. This potential, which indicates social maladjustment, manifests in early childhood and is reinforced by school failure, which is strongly associated with crime.

4. Cite at least two factors related to crime for Glueck.

Physical constitution
Family relations

5. For Glueck, criminal tendencies are the product of two factors. Cite them.

Biological factors
Psychological factors

6. The causal explanation of crime based on psychological characteristics ignores a paradox. What is it?

The paradox is that if the causal explanation of crime based on psychological characteristics assumes the primacy of psychic structure in driving actions, then either the objective data describing a deviant personality are accurate, in which case how can it be corrected, or it can be corrected, in which case how can it be considered as crucial as some claim?

7. What are two criticisms that can be made of causal theories of deviance?

They are based on a notion of identity that is too static.
It’s questionable whether it’s reasonable to attribute the same origin (personality) to various forms of deviance.

Questions: Unit 6

1. What is the fundamental conclusion of research by Irving Piliavin and colleagues on the deterrent effect of formal sanctions in relation to committing offenses?

The research suggests that the recognition of the legitimacy of criminal punishment has a negligible impact on deterring individuals from committing offenses.

2. One of the contributions of Piliavin’s research is that the outcome of the sanction (penalty) is a function of the importance of commitment to the world of deviance for the offender. Explain briefly.

This means that when criminal behavior is repeated, there’s increased contact with formal control mechanisms (police, judges, etc.). As a result, repeat offenders lose their fear of punishment because it becomes part of their lifestyle.

3. What is the perspective assumed by the routine activity theory?

The routine activity theory takes a pragmatic approach, defining crime as an event that occurs when specific conditions converge in a particular place and time.

4. For Cohen and Felson, there are three conditions for an offense. Cite them.

A motivated offender
Suitable targets
Lack of guardianship (invisibility, inaccessibility, lack of security)

5. Explain the phrase “the development of crime is the price of modernity.” What is your opinion about it?

This phrase suggests that the advancements and complexities of modern society create more opportunities for crime. Factors like increased wealth disparities, consumerism, and industrial organization can motivate individuals predisposed to crime. In my opinion, while modernity might create more opportunities for certain types of crime, it also provides avenues for social progress and crime prevention through advancements in technology, education, and social welfare.

6. Since the late nineteenth century, two ideas have dominated criminal reflection. What are they?

Exemplary punishment
Streamlining the criminal justice system

7. For M. Cusson, two mechanisms explain the double stability over time of the judicial process and the level of arrests. What are they?

The increasing number of offenses can lead to a redefinition of the criteria for the severity of crimes, resulting in more dismissals.
The frequency of sentences imposed for the same offense can be accompanied by a decrease in the severity of the penalty.

8. What is the concept of “positive shame” coined by Braithwaite? Provide a current or historical example.

Positive shame aims to instill a sense of remorse and disapproval in a potential offender, deterring them from committing the act. An example is the proposal to publicly list the names of convicted domestic abusers in their respective municipalities.

9. Discuss the sentence: “The slow replacement of repression by persuasion cannot be separated from the progress of reason, democracy, and individual responsibility.”

This sentence suggests that as societies progress towards greater reason, democracy, and individual responsibility, they move away from relying solely on repression (punishment) and embrace persuasion and rehabilitation as means of addressing crime. This involves fostering a social environment where individuals are encouraged to take responsibility for their actions and are provided with opportunities for personal growth and reintegration into society.

10. In your opinion, what should be the aim of punishment: criminal rehabilitation or reparation for the harm caused? Explain your answer.

In my opinion, the aim of punishment should be a combination of both criminal rehabilitation and reparation for the harm caused. While repairing the damage and ensuring victim satisfaction are crucial, rehabilitation is essential to prevent recidivism and reintegrate offenders into society. However, for certain serious offenses (e.g., violent crimes, sexual abuse), where rehabilitation may not be feasible, the focus should shift towards protecting society and ensuring that the offender cannot cause further harm, potentially through long-term incarceration.

Questions: Unit 7 (Differential Association)

1. State the first four propositions of Sutherland and Cressey’s differential association theory and discuss them separately.

Criminal behavior is learned: This proposition emphasizes that criminal behavior is not innate or due to psychological deficiencies but is acquired through social learning.
Criminal behavior is learned through interaction with others: This highlights the role of communication and social interaction in the learning process. Individuals learn criminal behavior by observing and interacting with others who engage in such activities.
Learning criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups: This suggests that the most significant learning of criminal behavior takes place within close-knit groups, where individuals are exposed to and influenced by the values and behaviors of their peers.
Learning criminal behavior involves acquiring techniques and motives: This proposition emphasizes that learning criminal behavior includes not only the practical skills to commit crimes but also the justifications, rationalizations, and attitudes that support such behavior.

2. What is Differential Association? What is the definition given by Sutherland?

Differential Association is a comprehensive theory that explains crime by proposing that criminal behavior is learned through social interaction. Sutherland defines it as a process resulting from the varying degrees of exposure an individual has to interpretations of the law that are either consistent or inconsistent with the regulatory requirements of a given social order. Individuals who are exposed to more favorable definitions of crime are more likely to engage in criminal behavior.

3. What are two consequences of this theory for practice?

Prevention: By balancing the conditions that expose individuals to negative conceptions of legality, it’s possible to prevent criminal behavior.
Understanding offender values: Offenders often share the same general values as law-abiding citizens but apply them differently. Sutherland suggests that shared societal values can be interpreted in various ways, leading to different behavioral outcomes.

Questions: Unit 8 (Anomie)

1. Write the type of Merton’s deviant response next to each example:

People who form an autonomous community: Rebellion
The Hells Angels motorcycle gang in California: Rebellion
Car thieves: Innovation
Low-level bureaucrats, stuck in their routine: Ritualism

2. State which type of Merton’s deviant response best explains each of the following acts:

A teenager whose parents are unemployed steals a dress from a shop: Innovation
A person who has lost their job and family becomes a drug addict: Retreatism
A young man becomes a revolutionary intellectual: Rebellion
A young university student who believes their career is useless continues in college at the insistence of their family and lack of other opportunities: Ritualism

3. A bank employee has to pay a heavy debt but has no money. They decide to defraud the bank, hoping to return the money before being caught. What concept best explains their behavior? (Social disorganization, differential association, or innovation).

Innovation

4. Write the following theories of deviance next to the examples cited: social disorganization, differential association, anomie, labeling.

A high divorce rate: Social disorganization
A group of unemployed young men from a large slum organize a car theft gang: Anomie
A boy becomes effeminate and homosexual due to the reactions of others towards him: Labeling
A young offender becomes “hardened” during their stay in prison: Differential association

Questions: Unit 9 (Deviant Subcultures)

1. Cohen’s study of juvenile delinquency in Delinquent Boys is based on three principles. Cite them.

The meaning given to deviant acts is established through social interaction.
The meaning of deviant acts can vary depending on the conceptions that members of a social group have about the offense, the person who commits it, and how it’s committed.
These conceptions are developed within “subcultures” that emerge to address specific constraints imposed by the social order on these groups.

2. What are the properties that determine the attitudes that point to the criminal subculture for Cohen?

Versatility of the objects of crime
Pursuit of immediate hedonism
Autonomy of the group

3. What new concept did Cloward introduce into Merton’s theory of anomie? Briefly explain what the “structure of opportunity” is.

Cloward introduced the concept of “opportunity structure.” He argued that it’s not enough to live in a disadvantaged environment with limited opportunities and high crime rates. Individuals also need to be exposed to specific circumstances (e.g., temptation to commit crime, association with a criminal network) and have access to illegitimate means to engage in criminal activity. The structure of opportunity refers to the availability of both legitimate and illegitimate means to achieve culturally defined goals.

4. Cloward and Ohlin contrasted Cohen’s subculture characteristics with three different types. What are they?

Criminal subculture
Conflict subculture
Retreatist subculture

5. What characterizes the violence that Cloward and Ohlin attribute to youth subcultures, specifically the conflict subculture?

The violence in the conflict subculture is attributed to troubled youth who lack strong social bonds and are alienated from both mainstream society and the criminal underworld. Their violence is often impulsive and expressive, lacking the instrumental purpose found in criminal subcultures.

6. Briefly explain the “double failure” that Cloward and Ohlin associate with the retreatist subculture, exemplified by drug addiction.

The “double failure” refers to individuals who are unable to achieve culturally defined goals through either legitimate or illegitimate means. They fail in the conventional world and are also unable to succeed in the criminal underworld. Drug addicts, for example, desire material possessions but cannot acquire them legally or through criminal activity, leading to a retreat into substance abuse.

7. In your view, the notion of “double failure” should be extended to a larger group of individuals than just drug addicts. Provide some examples that currently exist in our societies.

The concept of “double failure” can be extended to include the long-term unemployed, those who are chronically underemployed, marginalized groups, the homeless, and individuals struggling with poverty and social exclusion. These individuals often face limited opportunities in both the legitimate and illegitimate spheres, leading to a sense of hopelessness and social alienation.

8. What is the fundamental contribution of Cloward and Ohlin to comprehensive theories of deviance?

Cloward and Ohlin highlighted the importance of an individual’s commitment to crime and their differential access to criminal opportunities. They emphasized that the nature of involvement in the criminal world, whether organized or not, and the availability of illegitimate means are crucial factors in determining an individual’s path towards deviance.

Questions: Unit 10 (Labeling)

1. Define status and role.

Status: The set of rights and duties associated with a socially defined position within a social system.
Role: The expected behavior patterns associated with a particular status.

2. Which of the following practices are statuses and which are roles?

Playing football: Role
Lawyer: Status
Medical team: Status
Disciplining a child: Role
Attending church: Role
Priest: Status
Minister: Status
Vaccinating a child: Role

3. Which of the two sets of social positions would be the preferred area of study for sociologists and why? A) Foreman, painter, plumber, contractor, owner. B) Actor, client, art critic, gardener.

Sociologists would likely prefer to study set A because it involves statuses with less rigidly defined roles, allowing for greater individual agency and improvisation within those positions. The roles associated with set B are often more clearly defined and regulated.

4. What is the contribution of E. Lemert to the Sociology of Deviance?

Lemert proposed that deviance is not simply a consequence of social control but that social control can actually create deviance through the labeling process.

5. Define primary and secondary deviation, according to E. Lemert.

Primary deviation: The initial act of violating a norm (e.g., running a red light).
Secondary deviation: The individual’s acceptance of the deviant label and subsequent engagement in further deviant behavior as a result of being labeled (e.g., continuing to run red lights after receiving multiple tickets and being labeled a “reckless driver”).

6. What is a deviant according to H. Becker? What is his major work in the Sociology of Deviance?

For Becker, a deviant is someone who has been successfully labeled as such by society. His major work is Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance, where he explores the social processes of labeling and the consequences of being labeled deviant.

7. List the four principles of the sequential model of explanation of deviant behavior for H. Becker.

Deviance is a quality attributed to an act through a social judgment.
Deviance is a group activity, where individuals learn deviant roles and behaviors.
Becoming deviant is a process similar to developing a career, with individuals progressing through different stages and roles within a deviant subculture.
The criteria for labeling deviance are sometimes created by “moral entrepreneurs” who have the power to define normality and enforce social control.

8. What is the paradox posed, in general, by labeling theories?

The paradox is that the social groups that create and enforce rules also create deviance by labeling individuals who violate those rules. By labeling individuals as deviant, they may inadvertently reinforce deviant behavior and create a self-fulfilling prophecy.

9. Cite the works of Goffman.

The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life
Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity
Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates
Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience
Interaction Ritual: Essays on Face-to-Face Behavior
Strategic Interaction
Where We Live: Notes on the Experience of Everyday Life

10. Define stigma, according to Goffman.

Goffman defines stigma as a deeply discrediting attribute that disqualifies an individual from full social acceptance. It’s a relationship between an attribute and a stereotype, where a personal characteristic (e.g., physical disability, mental illness, criminal record) becomes a stigma when it deviates from societal expectations and leads to negative social reactions.

11. What is a “status degradation ceremony” for sociologists?

A status degradation ceremony is a formal or informal process through which an individual’s social status is publicly lowered. In the context of labeling theory, it refers to the process of officially labeling someone as deviant, often through a criminal trial or other public condemnation. This labeling can have significant consequences for the individual’s identity, social relationships, and future opportunities.

12. What Goffman work explores the behavior of individuals in total institutions?

Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates explores the behavior of individuals within total institutions, such as mental hospitals, prisons, and military barracks. Goffman examines how these institutions shape the identities and social interactions of their inmates, often leading to depersonalization and the adoption of institutionalized roles.