The Sophists, Socrates, and the Search for Truth
The Sophists
Focus on Practical Reality and Ethics
The Sophists were professional educators who traveled throughout Greece, offering their expertise to citizens seeking social success. They focused on practical matters like politics and ethics, teaching rhetoric, oratory, and eristic (the art of argumentation). Unlike philosophers who sought knowledge for its own sake, the Sophists were more like trainers who imparted knowledge for social advancement.
Two Types of Relativism
The Sophists are known for their relativistic theories:
- Theoretical Relativism: This view posits that reality depends on one’s perspective. Because observation reveals constant change, there can be no fixed or universal truths. Knowledge, therefore, is relative to our perception.
- Practical or Moral Relativism: Skepticism extended to morality and justice, which were seen as conventional and dependent on the political organization of society, particularly democracy.
Physis vs. Nomos
The Sophists’ greatest contribution was distinguishing between physis (nature) and nomos (convention). Physis refers to the universal and unchanging laws governing the natural world. Nomos refers to the rules and laws governing human behavior, which were thought to be divinely ordained and immutable. However, the Sophists recognized that these laws were actually created by humans and varied across communities. They believed that self-interest and the desire for power drive human actions, highlighting the importance of regulating behavior through laws.
Protagoras and Homo Mensura
(484-414 BC)
Protagoras, who spent part of his life in Athens, is best known for his theory of homo mensura (“man is the measure”), a defense of relativism regarding truth. He believed that truth stems from individual perception, leading to three main ideas:
- Truth is Subjective: Truth is the agreement between what we perceive and what actually is, reducing all truth to individual opinion.
- Individual Authority: There is no higher authority than the individual, and each person is governed by their own interests.
- Equality Among Men: All men share the same political virtue and are entitled to be heard. The only viable political organization arises from agreements among citizens.
Socrates
Challenging Democratic Institutions
Socrates, a teacher of Plato, belonged to the aristocracy but defended it against democratic institutions. His death marked a conflict between democrats and autocrats. His thought can be divided into three sections:
Subjectivity/Objectivity
While the Sophists focused on the human subject, Socrates sought to address the skepticism they engendered. He believed that consciousness could transcend subjective limitations to reach a shared understanding of goodness and justice. This concept of shared moral truths is known as eudaimonia, and these universal concepts are called katholou. Socrates distinguished two planes:
- Philosophy: Its true object is humanity, emphasizing its political and ethical role.
- Moral Vision: The importance of discovering a morality that serves the general good, not just individual interests.
The Socratic Method (Mayeutica)
Socrates believed that teaching in the traditional sense was impossible. Instead, he advocated for a method of questioning that would help individuals clarify their own biases and arrive at shared truths. This method, known as the Socratic method or Mayeutica, has two dimensions:
- Irony: Exposing the flaws in opposing arguments through questioning, revealing that individuals often do not truly understand what they claim to know.
- Mayeutica: Guiding individuals to discover the truth within themselves, leading to the development of universal concepts and definitions.
Socratic Moral Intellectualism
Socrates believed that knowledge of the good leads to its practice. This knowledge resides in the soul, which possesses reason and will. For Socrates, knowledge of the good equates to happiness.