The Spanish-American War: Causes, Consequences, and Modernization
The Crisis of ’98: Causes and Consequences
The seeds of the Crisis of ’98 were sown long before the actual conflict. The promises of autonomy made to Cubans in 1878 were not honored, leading to increasing demands for greater self-governance and eventual independence. Maura’s proposed autonomy for the island failed due to opposition from the Cuban and Spanish economic oligarchies, as well as American pressure. This culminated in a separatist insurgency in Cuba and the Philippines in 1895.
Sagasta and Canovas approved a pro-autonomy proposal, but it was too late. The war’s underlying causes stemmed from the economic and political interests of the Spanish ruling class, the Cuban oligarchy, and the United States, all vying for influence in the Pacific and Caribbean.
Consequences of the War
The Treaty of Paris marked the definitive end of Spain’s overseas empire, relegating it to a second-tier power. Spain attempted to compensate for this loss through the exploitation of Morocco during the international colonial realignment.
Economically, the war negatively impacted Catalan textile exports and imports of cheap raw materials, leading to balance of payments issues and increased trade protectionism. While the repatriation of capital partially offset these effects, the most significant consequence was the blow to Spain’s national morale. The loss of its last colonies triggered a period of collective depression and Spanish catastrophism.
Spaniards realized their nation was insignificant on the international stage, economically backward, and politically dominated by caciquismo (political bossism). This realization fueled the rise of Regenerationism and the Generation of ’98, movements aimed at addressing Spain’s ills.
Development of the Conflict
The war began in 1895, with José Martí igniting the anti-Spanish sentiment in eastern Cuba. Cánovas del Castillo replaced Martínez Campos, opting for a strategy of denial and appointing General Weyler, who implemented a harsh policy. Weyler divided the territory, using fortified lines to restrict the movement of insurgents and facilitate their capture. Although the death of Maceo signaled a potential Spanish victory, the United States intervened due to international outcry over Weyler’s brutal tactics.
The war unfolded on two fronts: the Pacific and the Caribbean. The American victory was swift, with Santiago de Cuba and Cabitos falling easily to American troops.
The Crisis of ’98 and Modernization of Spain
Regenerationists largely agreed that the disaster of ’98 exposed Spain’s backwardness compared to its neighbors. They advocated for policies such as water management (which would later influence Joaquín Primo de Rivera and Franco), educational reform (emphasized by the Institución Libre de Enseñanza), progressive reforms during the Second Republic, industrialization under Franco, and a pro-European stance. The 20th century is incomprehensible without understanding these regenerationist and modernizing influences.