The Spanish-American War of 1898: Causes, Consequences, and Legacy
The Spanish-American War of 1898
Item 6: The Colonial War Crisis
During the age of imperialism, Spain, with limited resources, struggled to maintain its colonial possessions while respecting the international balance of power. As other nations carved up the world, Spain was not only marginalized but also began losing its territories. The late 19th century saw a deep crisis triggered by colonial independence wars in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.
The conflict stemmed from two main issues:
- Spain’s inadequate colonial policies, which ignored calls for autonomy and reforms from the colonies.
- The expansionist interests of the United States, fueled by industrial growth and a burgeoning population. Cuba, the world’s largest sugar producer, was a particularly desirable acquisition for its market and strategic location.
1. The Spanish Colonial Empire
Following the independence of its American colonies in the early 1800s, Spain retained several key territories:
- Cuba and Puerto Rico in the West Indies.
- Ceuta and Melilla, controlling the Strait of Gibraltar.
- The Philippines and smaller island groups in the Pacific (Marianas, Palau, and the Carolinas).
Cuba and Puerto Rico’s economies relied on agricultural exports (sugar and tobacco), produced by enslaved labor. These profitable colonies saw significant development. Cuba became the world’s leading sugar producer. Spanish rule was increasingly based on the support of a small, slave-owning oligarchy and a wealthy middle class who benefited from ties to Spain and resisted change. A Creole middle class favored liberalized trade with the U.S. and political autonomy, often advocating for independence. Harsh Spanish tariffs turned these territories into captive markets for Spanish goods, disadvantaging them compared to cheaper American products.
The Philippines presented a different scenario. With a small Spanish population and limited investment, Spanish control relied on a small military presence and the influence of religious orders. Spain’s presence in the Pacific was weak and economically unprofitable. However, the Philippines held potential as a base for influencing the Asian mainland market, an interest shared by the U.S. and other European powers.
2. Cuba
2.1 The Ten Years’ War (1868-1878)
Exploited by Spain, Cuban planters saw independence as the path to economic freedom. Manuel Céspedes’s call to arms (the Grito de Yara) on October 10, 1868, ignited the Ten Years’ War. Political and economic discontent combined with unrest over slavery. Spain’s attempts to abolish slavery were thwarted by Spanish economic interests in Cuba. The U.S. attempted to annex the island. Spain employed a dual strategy: diplomatic resistance to U.S. overtures and military action against the rebels.
The mambises (Cuban rebels) waged a war of attrition, aided by farmer and black support and Spain’s preoccupation with the Third Carlist War. After the Carlist War, Spain sent General Martínez Campos, who ended the war with the Pact of Zanjón (1878), promising amnesty and reforms. Unfulfilled promises and continued repression led to the Little War (1879-1880).
The Pact of Zanjón aimed to integrate Cuba as a Spanish province. Two political parties emerged: the pro-Spanish Constitutional Union Party and the native Autonomist Party. Slavery was eventually abolished in 1886. Spain attempted to counter the independence movement by appealing to the black population and encouraging Spanish immigration.
2.2 The Cuban War of 1895-1898
The War of Independence began in 1895 with the Grito de Baire, led by José Martí, who secured U.S. support. This war differed from previous conflicts: the rebels extended the revolution westward, and the U.S. openly supported the separatists. Spain sent General Valeriano Weyler, who implemented harsh tactics, including concentrating peasants in camps, leading to widespread criticism.
The assassination of Cánovas brought Sagasta to power. He replaced Weyler and pursued a path toward autonomy for Cuba and Puerto Rico. While Spain granted autonomy, the Cubans, with U.S. intervention, achieved full independence in 1898.
3. Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico also experienced demands for political and economic change. Delegates to Madrid’s Information Meeting sought special laws, prioritizing the abolition of slavery. Disappointed by the lack of results, some islanders sought U.S. help, leading to U.S. interest in annexation after Spain’s defeat in 1898.
4. The Philippines
Simultaneously, an insurrection erupted in the Philippines, neglected by the Spanish government. Spain’s primary interest was the potential for trade and access to the Asian market. Ethnic diversity and the power of religious orders posed challenges. The uprising led by José Rizal and Emilio Aguinaldo was suppressed, but when the U.S. declared war on Spain, the Filipinos sided with the Americans.
5. The War with the U.S. (1898)
Driven by economic and strategic interests, the U.S. aimed to annex Spanish territories. The sinking of the USS Maine in Havana harbor provided the pretext for war. Spain, lacking resources, faced a quick defeat. The Spanish fleet was sunk in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba, making ground resistance impossible.
In Puerto Rico, the U.S. fleet bombarded San Juan and landed troops. In the Philippines, following the victory at Cavite, U.S. troops landed, and with Filipino support, defeated the Spanish.
6. The Treaty of Paris (December 1898)
The Treaty of Paris ended the war. Spain ceded Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam to the U.S. and granted independence to Cuba, which remained under U.S. control. Spain later sold Palau, the Carolines, and the Marianas to Germany.
7. Implications
The disaster of 1898 exposed Spain’s political and military weaknesses, marking the start of the Restoration’s decline. It sparked a regenerationist movement advocating modernization and reforms. The war’s economic consequences disrupted finances and led to market losses. It also fueled Catalan and Basque nationalism. The loss of the colonies marked the end of the Spanish empire and the rise of the American empire. The events of 1898 profoundly influenced the Generation of 98 writers, ushering in the Silver Age of Spanish literature.