The Spanish-American War of 1898: Causes, Consequences, and Regeneration
The Spanish-American War of 1898
I. Introduction: American Policy and Expansionism
By the late 19th century, the United States, fueled by a thriving post-Civil War economy and the Second Industrial Revolution, sought new markets for its surplus production and capital. The conquest of the West and the concept of the “frontier” were central to American ideology. The Monroe Doctrine (1823), asserting “America for Americans,” and the racially charged doctrine of Manifest Destiny, which proclaimed American superiority, provided justification for intervention in foreign countries. This expansionist drive led to territorial acquisitions, including New Mexico, Alta California, and Texas, after the Mexican-American War. Focus shifted to the Pacific and the Caribbean, with the Panama Canal project and growing tensions with Spain over Cuba and Puerto Rico. Admiral Alfred T. Mahan’s naval theories further emphasized the importance of sea power for global dominance.
II. Colonial Disaster: The War in Cuba and the Philippines
Cuba’s economic ties with the U.S. had strengthened significantly by the mid-19th century. The island’s sugar industry, increasingly dependent on the American market, faced competition from beet sugar. Spain, despite several U.S. offers to purchase Cuba, resisted relinquishing the colony. Cuban independence movements, including the Ten Years’ War (1868-1878) and the Little War (1878-1895), reflected growing discontent. The Zanjón Pact, promising autonomy, failed to quell the separatist sentiment. José Martí, a key figure in the Cuban Revolutionary Party, advocated for independence and led the renewed uprising in 1895 (Grito de Baire). The U.S., wary of an independent Cuba, maintained a keen interest in the conflict. Spain’s weaker military, coupled with internal political divisions, struggled to contain the rebellion. General Valeriano Weyler’s harsh tactics, including the reconcentración policy, further inflamed tensions. The sinking of the USS Maine in Havana harbor in 1898, though of unclear cause, became a rallying cry for war in the U.S., fueled by sensationalist journalism. The Spanish-American War officially began in April 1898.
The war quickly expanded to the Philippines, where Spanish presence was limited. American naval victory at Manila Bay marked a turning point. In Cuba, the Spanish fleet under Admiral Cervera was blockaded and ultimately destroyed in Santiago de Cuba. The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in December 1898.
III. Consequences of ’98
a) Political Implications
The loss of the colonies did not lead to systemic collapse in Spain. The focus remained on political stability. While some conservatives, like Romero Robledo, favored maintaining the colonial system, opposition to the war was widespread. The concept of “regeneration” emerged, emphasizing the need for reform and modernization. The Silvela government, though short-lived, initiated some reforms, including decentralization and fiscal adjustments, but faced resistance and social unrest.
b) The Regenerationist Movement
The disaster of ’98 fueled a wave of regenerationist movements, particularly among the middle classes. Figures like Joaquín Costa criticized the corruption and oligarchy of the Restoration system, advocating for modernization, education, and land reform. Francisco Silvela, the conservative leader, called for a “surgeon with an iron hand” to address the political malaise. The Generation of ’98, a group of writers and intellectuals, expressed disillusionment with Spanish society and explored themes of national identity. José Ortega y Gasset’s philosophy, with its focus on “vital reason” and concern about “invertebrate Spain,” also reflected the anxieties of the era. The military, deeply affected by the defeat, adopted more authoritarian stances.