The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
ITEM 9: THE CIVIL WAR (1936-1939) Following continued confrontation and revolutionary actions by both the right and left, the Spanish Civil War broke out. Two theories have been put forward to explain the Spanish Civil War: the theory of war as a consequence of fascist intervention and the theory of war as a result of a justified reaction by Spanish industry to curb international communism.
Attempts at coups, such as the Sanjurjo uprising, did not resurface until 1934 when representatives of the Alfonsinos and Carlists unsuccessfully requested help from Mussolini. On July 12, Lieutenant Castillo was found murdered by the extreme right, and that night Calvo Sotelo was also murdered by the left.
1. The Military Uprising and International Approach to the Conflict
a) The Military Uprising:
Since the victory of the Popular Front, a series of conspiracies against the Republic were being set up from different sectors. The general coordinator was Mola, who wanted to implement what he called a “Republican military dictatorship.” He had the support of the CEDA and monarchical pretensions. The backing for the uprising began on July 17 in the Melilla protectorate of Morocco, at the hands of General Franco. Sanjurjo, the leader, died in a plane crash from Portugal. Mola was held in Pamplona and Queipo in Seville, among others. The reaction on the Republican side was one of passivity and indecision, with successive governments resigning.
b) Formation of Camps:
On day 18, the uprising spread to the rest of Portugal and Spain, thus dividing the country into two:
- “The rebels dominated some 230,000 square km. Their aim was to end the republic, defend Catholicism and the military in political life, impose law and order, and prevent the communist revolution. In addition to imposing a state model close to fascism.”
- The Republic controlled about 270,000 square kilometers, including mining and industrial areas with a greater population and areas of export agriculture, the fleet, and the gold of Spain.
c) The International Dimension of the Conflict:
From the beginning, the Civil War was an international problem. In this way, neutrality was regularized with the birth of the Non-Intervention Committee in August 1936, signed by France, Britain, Germany, Italy, and Portugal.
Rebel Aid:
The rebels were greatly favored by foreign support. Germany provided plenty of military equipment (artillery, tanks), military advisers, and especially the Legion. Italy contributed troops and war materiel (CTV) of Italian fascists. Portugal also took a decisive part with the rebels, allowing the use of its ports as supply points and sending a body of troops, Viriato.
Support for the Republican Side:
Morally, democracies and especially the USSR sent weapons (tanks, planes), military advisers, and political advisers. They received help from Mexico, which, chaired by Lázaro Cárdenas, supported the republic with the passage of weapons, food, and diplomatic support. We should also add the presence of the International Brigades.
2. Development of the War
From this scheme, the history of the Civil War is the story of the uninterrupted progress of the rebels.
Phase One (July to November 1936)
This phase is characterized by the consolidation of rebel rule in the south and the first attack on Madrid in the dual belief that the capital would soon fall and that this fall would mean the end of the war. On the one hand, they advanced rapidly through western Andalusia and Extremadura with the army in Morocco, but Mola’s attack in the north was arrested in Guadarrama and Somosierra. Franco’s primary objective was the conquest of Madrid. Franco’s attacks against Madrid were thwarted by resistance from the locals, a column of troops, volunteer militias of parties and unions, and the arrival of Soviet material. The hard battles of Jarama and Guadalajara followed.
Second Phase (February-October 1937)
The war in the north was the next target of the rebels, who launched an offensive in spring 1937 on a front divided and isolated from the rest of the country. The battles of Brunete and Belchite (Madrid and Zaragoza, respectively), which the Republic planned to divert attacks from the north, did not have the desired effect.
Third Phase (December 1937 to December 1938)
Following the government crackdown on Teruel in the hands of the rebels, the Aragonese city experienced weeks of the most tragic history of the government. The government’s desperate attempt to recover it between July and December resulted in the long and bloody Battle of the Ebro.
End of the War: The First Three Months of 1939
Barcelona fell on January 26, and Gerona followed, continuing the conquest of Catalonia, which ended in February. On the 27th of that same month, the Franco government was recognized by Britain and France. On the 28th, Azaña resigned as President of the Republic. On March 6, a Defense Board was established, presided over by Besteiro and Colonel Casado, in order to negotiate the surrender. Franco did not accept anything other than unconditional surrender. Madrid fell on the 28th, Valencia on the 30th, and Almería, Murcia, Cartagena, and Menorca on the 31st. On April 1, the media broadcast the last part of the war, which officially declared the war over, becoming the basic document for Franco’s Spain.
3. Evolution in the Two Areas and Consequences. Incidents of the Civil War in Castilla La Mancha
a) Political Developments in Both Areas
Republican Zone:
The Republican zone was disjointed territorially and administratively, with power exercised through committees organized by the parties and unions. Their first steps were to control transport, urban services, military supplies, and factories through the party committees and unions. There was a social revolution raised from two perspectives: one, communists, socialists, moderates, and supporters of leading Republicans, sought to centralize the revolution. On the other hand, anarchists, Trotskyists, and radical socialists favored bringing the revolution to its logical conclusion. The financial resources came from Republican control of the most industrialized and urbanized areas, in addition to the reserves of the Bank of Spain.
Governments of War:
The early days of the war were in disarray. Casares Quiroga resigned on July 18. To cope with the rebellion, Azaña tried to form a government with the moderate Martínez Barrio, but Mola refused. The government soon collapsed, and a second government headed by Giral was established. The rebel advance on Madrid forced the creation of a Socialist-dominated government headed by Largo Caballero. In 1937, boycotted by the Communists and the PSOE, Largo Caballero resigned and was replaced by Juan Negrín. His was a considerable policy shift, as high priority was given to war. Thereafter, Negrín stayed close to the socialists, but in fact, responded to guidance given in Moscow by the PCE. Finally, General Casado precipitated the end of the war by carrying out a coup with the intention of negotiating peace with Franco, uselessly.
Rebel Zone:
On July 24, the National Defense Council was formed in Burgos, assisted by several committees from which the first decisions were taken: a return to the red and yellow flag, martial law, and the replacement of almost all civil authorities by military governors. Despite the opposition of Cabanellas, it was decided to give the leadership to Franco (1-10-1936) until the end of the war. A Technical Board of State advised the service. Economically, it sought financial help, which it did not receive soon. The Decree of Unification was promulgated, by which all political organizations merged into one: the Traditionalist Spanish Falange and the Boards of the National Syndicalist Offensive (FET y de las JONS). Franco became the supreme leader. The next step was the formation of the first government in Burgos in January 1938. For the first time, a ministerial structure was created, with personal rule in which Franco monopolized all power.
b) Consequences of the War
From a military point of view, the Civil War was a conflict in a backward country that, with few exceptions, did not provide the technical innovations that would be used soon after the Second World War, but it had tragic consequences.
Demographic Consequences:
Some 300,000 deaths, of which about half were at the front and many others resulted from repression on both sides. Besides the dead, about 400,000 were wounded in combat, and 300,000 prisoners of war remained until 1945. Victims included intellectuals like Melquiades Alvarez and Falangist politicians like José Antonio Primo de Rivera and Ramiro Ledesma Ramos. Tragic events like the murder of political prisoners in jail occurred. Heinous killings took place in Seville, Malaga, and Badajoz, among other places.
Economic Consequences:
The economic consequences were equally disastrous: loss of population, destruction of hundreds of thousands of buildings, and hundreds of people. Losses were concentrated in the transport infrastructure, with shipping, railways, and roads destroyed. Income levels did not recover to 1935 levels until the fifties.
Political Fallout: The Difficult Reconciliation:
Finally, Spain became a political exception in Europe: a regime of dictatorship in the context of parliamentary democracies. And we should not forget the void in cultural, scientific, and intellectual life in general. The country moved seamlessly from a silver age to become a cultural wasteland.
c) Incidence of the Civil War in Castilla La Mancha
The military uprising against the Republic, which won the first time in the cities of Albacete and Guadalajara, saw the majority of Castilla La Mancha remain faithful to the Republic. In the early days of the conflict, the persecution of those who had or might have something to do with the rebels or their supporters began. CEDA militants, Falange members, traditional landowners, priests, religious people, and ordinary people were forced from their homes and executed. Also, in the early days of the war, there was a runaway anti-clericalism, both against people and against the artistic assets of the Church (looting and destruction of temples and images). The damage was extensive throughout the Castilian-La Mancha geography.
Military Action:
The civil war, except in the provinces of Toledo and Guadalajara, was experienced in our region from the rear. A first noteworthy event took place in the city of Toledo, where Colonel Moscardó declared a state of war. Seseña (Toledo) was the headquarters of rebel troops in the Battle of Jarama in February 1937. That same year (March), the Battle of Guadalajara was fought, which proved a disaster for the rebels. In January 1939, with the war almost lost, the Republicans, in order to alleviate Catalonia, launched a desperate offensive on the Extremadura front. Throughout the conflict, Albacete and some of its locations became the logistics and training base of the International Brigades.
Socioeconomic Incidents:
The inclusion of most of Castilla La Mancha in the Republican zone led to a real socio-economic revolution reflected in the following:
- To remove traces of the past, some locations changed their names (e.g., Ciudad Real was called “Free City of La Mancha.”)
- Union membership grew remarkably (in many cases as a way to save lives), especially the anarchist symbol (linked to the CNT).
- The real hallmark of the social revolution was the agrarian and industrial collectives. In the early days of the war, buildings and rural properties of those considered hostile to the Republic were seized and expropriated. The little existing industry was militarized and nationalized.
All told, it operated in a war economy, bringing inflation, food shortages, and a lack of money (replaced by vouchers and tickets issued by local municipalities for the purchase of staples).