The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
Phases of the War
Previous Events: On July 18, 1936, a military coup, led by a faction of the army, was launched with the aim of overthrowing the Second Spanish Republic. The coup leaders intended to swiftly seize control and suppress any opposition. However, the coup triggered a bloody civil war that divided the country.
The Two Sides
The Nationalists (Rebels): This faction comprised military conservatives, monarchists, right-wing groups, Catholics, traditionalists, and those opposed to the Republic’s reforms. They drew inspiration from fascism and identified themselves as nationalists and Catholics. The Nationalist side received crucial support from Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany.
The Republicans (Loyalists): This side represented the popular classes, including workers, peasants, and the petty bourgeoisie. The majority were socialists, communists, and anarchists. They defended the legitimacy of the Republic and were known as the “Reds.” The Republicans received limited support from the Soviet Union and international volunteers who formed the International Brigades.
Resources and Geography
The Nationalists gained control of the interior of the Peninsula, which was predominantly agricultural. The Republicans held the coastal regions, where industry and a large part of the working class were concentrated. Both sides had access to agricultural resources. The textile and steel industries, vital for war production, were mainly in Republican hands (metal in Vizcaya, coal in Asturias). The Bank of Spain’s gold reserves, located in Madrid, were also under Republican control.
Military Forces
The Republican army initially had a larger number of troops, but many commanders rebelled and joined the Nationalists. This shortage of experienced officers forced the Republicans to improvise and appoint new commanders on the fly. The Nationalists, on the other hand, had a more unified and experienced officer corps. The Nationalists lacked a strong navy, which was largely controlled by the Republicans. Aviation played a limited role in the war.
International Involvement
Europe was divided in its response to the Spanish Civil War. France, the USA, and the Soviet Union sympathized with the Republicans, who were fighting against the fascist regimes of Germany and Italy. These countries established a Non-Intervention Committee in August 1936 to prevent foreign involvement in the conflict. However, Germany and Italy openly intervened, providing the Nationalists with weapons, planes, tanks, and other military support. The Republicans received limited aid, mainly through the International Brigades, composed of volunteers from various countries.
Key Events and Battles
The Nationalist Advance: The support from Italy and Germany was crucial in strengthening the Nationalist army and contributing to the eventual defeat of the Republicans. The Nationalists, under the leadership of General Francisco Franco, transported troops from Spanish Morocco to mainland Spain with the help of the Italian navy. They secured control of southern Spain and advanced northwards. The Battle of Badajoz, a key Republican stronghold, marked a significant Nationalist victory.
The Battle for Madrid: Franco launched several offensives to capture Madrid, the Republican capital. The Battle of Jarama and the Battle of Guadalajara saw the Republicans successfully defend the city against Nationalist attacks, including Italian troops sent by Mussolini. The arrival of the International Brigades and anarchist columns bolstered the Republican defense.
The Northern Campaign: In 1937, Franco shifted his focus to the north, aiming to conquer the Basque Country and Asturias. This region was important for its industrial resources and its potential to serve as a Republican rearguard. The bombing of Guernica, a Basque town, by the German Condor Legion, became a symbol of the war’s brutality. The Nationalists eventually conquered Vizcaya and Cantabria, followed by Asturias after a fierce resistance.
The Battle of the Ebro: In 1938, the Republican army launched a major offensive across the Ebro River in an attempt to regain lost territory and boost morale. Despite initial successes, the offensive was eventually halted by Franco’s forces, supported by German and Italian airpower. The Battle of the Ebro marked a turning point in the war, further weakening the Republican side.
The Fall of Catalonia: Following the defeat at the Ebro, the Nationalists launched an offensive against Catalonia, the last major Republican stronghold. Barcelona, the capital of Catalonia, fell in January 1939. The Republican government went into exile.
The End of the War: By early 1939, the Republican cause was lost. Internal divisions and the lack of external support sealed their fate. Franco rejected Republican offers of surrender and insisted on unconditional victory. On April 1, 1939, the war officially ended with the Nationalist victory.
Franco’s Regime and Ideology
Franco’s ideology was a mix of traditionalism, authoritarianism, and National Catholicism. He established a single-party state, initially modeled after Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. However, after the defeat of the Axis powers in World War II, Franco distanced himself from fascism and adopted a more conservative, anti-communist stance. The regime emphasized Spanish nationalism, Catholicism, and anti-communism. Franco held absolute power as head of state, government, and the armed forces. He ruled through a series of fundamental laws that established an authoritarian system with limited political freedoms.
Legacy of the War
The Spanish Civil War had a profound impact on Spain and Europe. It resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of people and left deep scars on Spanish society. The war also served as a prelude to World War II, with the involvement of Germany and Italy foreshadowing the larger conflict to come. The Franco regime, established as a result of the war, lasted until Franco’s death in 1975, leaving a complex legacy for Spain to grapple with in its transition to democracy.