The Spanish Civil War: A Brief Overview
The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
The Popular Front
In February 1936, the chair of the Republic, Alcalá Zamora, instructed Manuel Azaña to form a government. The program of this new government was the Popular Front, which was based on four pillars:
- Continuation of agrarian reform
- Intensification of educational policy
- Amnesty for political prisoners
- Restoration of the Generalitat, and the final impetus to pass statutes of autonomy for Catalonia and the Basque Country.
On April 16th, Alcalá Zamora was removed as president of the Republic and replaced by Manuel Azaña on May 10th. Azaña assumed the chairmanship of the government, and Casares Quiroga took his place as Prime Minister. However, neither Azaña nor Quiroga could prevent the progressive deterioration of public order, which manifested in three ways:
- Violence in the countryside, land seizures, and occupations
- Attacks on convents and the burning of churches and ecclesiastical buildings
- Extreme political attacks
One such attack cost the life of Calvo Sotelo in July 1936, which had a great emotional impact on the right-wing and the military, and spurred the preparation of an insurrection against the Republic.
Social and Political Radicalization
On the right, there was an increase in the violent activities of the Spanish Falange and the JONS, although the military buildup was limited. This led to the persecution of the party and the arrest of its leader. On the left, there was a radicalization within the PSOE and the CNT. In Catalonia, this radicalization led to the formation of various political parties on the left. In 1935-36, the POUM was formed, and in 1936, the PSUC. The CNT created a program that advocated the suppression of public religious worship, the confiscation of property, and the collective organization of society through communes. In Spain, the radicalization was also seen in clandestine associations like the JSU and UMRA.
The Military Conspiracy
Since the proclamation of the Republic, a part of the army had been hostile and plotting against it. The government was aware of this danger and sent suspected generals to the periphery. From April onwards, General Mola prepared a coup network that would gain the confidence of all anti-republican movements. The coup, as planned by Mola, had to be a swift action, and it had to be carried out when the degree of violence was high. The coup was triggered on July 18th by the assassination of Calvo Sotelo.
Military Insurrection
The military uprising began in Melilla on July 17th, 1936. Shortly after, Franco took control of the Army of Africa. Military and civilian personnel who remained loyal to the Republic were shot. From the beginning, the rebels sought to impose a new order through violence. On the night of July 18th-19th, Mola and other military leaders declared a state of war on the rest of Spain.
Spain Divided
The rebels had triumphed in rural Spain. The rest of the country remained loyal to the Republic, retaining the most important cities and industrial zones.
Insurrection in Catalonia
On the morning of July 19th, troops attempted to reach the heart of Barcelona to control key locations, but militants of the CNT, FAI, and other leftist groups resisted, and the insurgents were detained.
Power to the Republicans
Almost all churches and convents in Barcelona were burned, which marked the beginning of a revolution throughout Spain. Numerous local and provincial committees loyal to the Republic were established, assuming the administration of municipalities and institutions. During the first months, these committees were responsible for abuses of power, especially against the clergy. The army had practically disappeared since the government had dismissed the soldiers, and the Republican military effort in the first months of the war was undertaken by militias.
Power in the Insurgent Zone
The rebel generals replaced mayors, governors, etc., with extreme violence, carrying out executions and murders. The response to the military insurrection left Spain divided into two zones, each with radically different ideals. A long civil war began, and the civilian population was forced to choose a side. The biggest problem for civilians, especially in the Republican zone, was subsistence, worsened by the bombing of civilian areas.
Military Phases of the War
First Phase: July-December 1936
The first objective of the rebels was to send columns to Madrid. Mola advanced from Pamplona, while the Army of Africa crossed the Strait of Gibraltar with the help of Italian aviation. Franco, leading the Army of Africa, advanced from Seville towards Madrid through Extremadura. However, the government managed to halt the rebel advance on the outskirts of Madrid. The Republican government moved to Valencia for safety. Catalan militia occupied the Aragon front. Disorganization and lack of preparation explain their weakness.
Second Phase: January 1937-November 1938
During the second phase of the war, the insurgents again attempted to conquer Madrid through encirclement, but they failed. Unable to occupy the capital, Franco decided to conquer Malaga and other Andalusian cities. On October 31st, 1937, the Republican government moved to Barcelona. In March, Franco launched an offensive against the Aragon front. On April 3rd, Franco occupied the first Catalan territories, and on the 5th, he repealed the Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia. On the 5th, the insurgent troops reached the north of Valencia, on the Republican side of the Ebro River. The Republican army was preparing for an offensive in the Ebro area to unite its territory. Although the Republican army had initial victories, Franco’s counteroffensive forced them back across the Ebro, leaving them practically defenseless. The Battle of the Ebro ended on November 15th, 1938, with extreme violence and a high number of casualties.
The Last Phase: December 1938-April 1939
On December 23rd, Franco ordered the final offensive against Catalonia, occupying all Catalan territory. The Republican government and the Catalan government crossed the border with thousands of people fleeing. On February 28th, 1939, Azaña resigned as president of the Republic and was not replaced. On March 28th, Franco’s troops occupied Madrid. On April 1st, 1939, the war ended.
The Rearguards
Revolutionary Transformations in the Republican Zone
July 1936 saw three simultaneous phenomena: the appearance of a new power, the creation of popular militias, and the collectivization of the economy. Lluís Companys proposed to the CNT to form a new body to act as the true government of Catalonia. The Central Committee of Anti-Fascist Militias of Catalonia was formed, integrated by leftist organizations. The defeat of the first Catalan military forces, the expansion of the committees, and the difficulty of coordination led to the creation of a government of unity in September 1936. The Central Committee of Anti-Fascist Militias disbanded on October 1st. Political differences did not disappear. The CNT and the POUM defended carrying out the revolution during the war, while the PSUC and the UGT prioritized winning the war and postponing the revolution. The revolution began in July with the spontaneous collectivization of the economy. During the first days of fighting with the insurgents, the bosses either left, were killed, or went into hiding. Collectivization was based on worker self-management. The Economy Council of Catalonia was created on October 24th, issuing a decree of collectivization and control of industries and businesses. These changes were accompanied by the municipalization of rental housing.
The Rebellious Rearguard
In the early months of the rebellion, once it became clear that the coup d’état was turning into a war, the need for a single command became apparent. Franco proclaimed himself Head of State and Generalissimo of the Armies, creating a Technical State Board. They intended to counteract the work of the Republic: returning land to its owners, purging officials close to the Republic, implementing educational reforms, and banning all political parties and unions except for the Falange and the Traditionalist Communion.
Violence and Repression in the Rearguards
Both sides engaged in violent repression against social and political groups considered enemies. On the Republican side, there was also a deep anti-clericalism. Anyone suspected of supporting the military revolt suffered persecution. Religious practice was prohibited throughout the war. In December 1936, the CNT and the POUM called for an end to the killings, but the repression and violence continued. The insurgent zone also lived in a climate of terror. No one rebelled against the repression, which was carried out according to military orders.
Political Developments
Republican Rearguard
The military defeats of the first months of the war highlighted the need to form a central government of unity and to create a regular army. Largo Caballero, the Prime Minister, created a unity government. The progress of the war led to confrontations, especially with the Communists and their way of directing the conflict. On May 2nd, the internal security advisor ordered the occupation of the CNT-controlled telephone building to limit the power of the anarchists. They resisted, but the central government sent assault guards to resolve the situation. These events led to the dismissal of the security advisor and concerns for the Republic. The Communists demanded the dissolution of the POUM as a condition for their continued support. Caballero refused and was dismissed by Azaña, who entrusted the formation of a new government to Juan Negrín. With his government, Communist influence in the government and the army increased. The POUM’s leaders were arrested.
Rebellious Rearguard
In the political arena, there were discrepancies between the Falange and the JONS, leading to constant tensions. Franco promulgated a decree of unification, creating a single fascist party, the Traditionalist Spanish Falange and the JONS. Franco had absolute power: Generalissimo of the Army, Head of State, Head of Government, and leader of the single political party. All of this was further strengthened by ecclesiastical support.
European States and the Civil War
European powers advocated for non-intervention. A Non-Intervention Committee was formed. The reasoning was that if other countries helped, the war could be prolonged. They also feared that the conflict could internationalize and lead to a European war. The aid that was provided was restricted to the Republican side and was always dependent on Stalin’s decisions. On the Nationalist side, Franco received help from Italy and Germany from the early days of the war.