The Spanish Civil War: A Concise Overview
The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
Portugal’s Role
Portugal, under the leadership of António de Oliveira Salazar, provided less overt support to the Nationalist faction compared to the fascist Salazar-Legion volunteers (Viriato). However, Portugal did permit the passage of supplies intended for Nationalist forces through its border.
Stages of the War
The Spanish Civil War unfolded in several stages, with the Nationalist military predominantly holding the offensive:
1. The “War of Columns” (July-November 1936)
Republicans organized militia columns comprised of inexperienced volunteers from leftist parties and trade unions. These columns were armed by the government and led by individuals lacking professional military experience. The Nationalist rebels mobilized their troops with the objective of capturing Madrid, the capital and the heart of Republican resistance, aiming for a swift resolution to the conflict.
Columns dispatched by Emilio Mola from Navarre encountered resistance and were halted in the mountains north of Madrid. Franco’s African army, advancing from Seville under the command of Juan Yagüe, swiftly occupied Extremadura and Badajoz, subsequently capturing Talavera in the Tagus valley. Their advance was marked by a campaign of terror.
Franco opted to postpone the advance on Madrid to relieve the siege of the Alcázar of Toledo, as its resistance held symbolic significance for the Nationalists. Mola’s forces seized Irun, effectively closing the border with France to the Republicans. San Sebastián surrendered shortly thereafter on September 13th.
2. The Battle of Madrid (November 1936 – March 1937)
Nationalist forces, spearheaded by General Varela, reached the outskirts of Madrid, making its fall appear imminent. The Republican government relocated to Valencia, leaving a Defense Board under the leadership of General Miaja, who was entrusted with the city’s defense.
Republican volunteer militias, including anarchist units, had suffered defeats and retreated to Madrid. The necessity of establishing a disciplined popular army became evident, a concept championed by the Communists, who received support from Republicans and professional military personnel.
Commander Vicente Rojo Lluch, a skilled strategist, aided by the USSR, the nascent International Brigades, and Buenaventura Durruti’s anarchist column, successfully repelled an initial assault on the university campus. Despite enduring aerial bombardments, the city’s heroic resistance, lasting nearly three years, significantly boosted Republican morale, epitomized by the slogan “No pasarán!” (They shall not pass!).
Franco made the decision to encircle the city through a coordinated attack: Nationalist forces from the south in the Battle of Jarama (February) and Italian troops from the north in the Battle of Guadalajara (March). Both offensives ended in failure. Although the Republicans fought valiantly, they were unable to launch counterattacks. The fronts stabilized, marking the beginning of a protracted war of attrition.
General Queipo de Llano’s rebel troops, notorious for his radio broadcasts, captured Málaga in February 1937.
The International Brigades, led by Communist leaders Luigi Longo (Italian) and André Marty (French), played a particularly prominent role in the defense of Madrid. They withdrew in November 1938 under pressure from the League of Nations.
Germany utilized the Spanish Civil War as a testing ground for its military strategies in anticipation of World War II. Their most infamous operation was the bombing of Guernica. Franco, who had authorized the bombing, attributed the destruction to Basque arson. Pablo Picasso immortalized this event in his renowned painting Guernica, created for the Spanish Pavilion at the Paris Exhibition.
3. The Northern Campaign (March 1937 – March 1938)
Mola amassed a substantial army to launch an offensive against the north, a region isolated from the rest of Republican territory and rich in mining and industrial resources. The Condor Legion bombed Guernica in April, marking the first military attack against an unarmed civilian population, which became a symbol of Republican suffering.
Bilbao fell in June, followed by Santander and Asturias in October, completing the Nationalist takeover of the Cantabrian coast. The Nationalists gained control of vital industrial and mining areas.
The Republican army executed two major diversionary offensives on other fronts to impede Franco’s advance from the north: the Battle of Brunete (Madrid, July) and the Battle of Belchite (Zaragoza, August). Both operations failed.
Republican forces managed to capture Teruel during the winter of 1937-38 under adverse weather conditions, but they held it for only a month.
4. The Battle of the Ebro and the Fall of Catalonia (March 1938 – February 1939)
Shifting his focus to the Mediterranean and Catalonia, Franco initiated a major offensive on the Aragon front, reaching Vinaroz (Castellón) in April 1938. Republican territory was divided in two, leaving Catalonia isolated.
In July 1938, the Republican army unexpectedly launched a large-scale offensive under the command of General Rojo, successfully crossing the Ebro River. The Battle of the Ebro, the longest and bloodiest of the war, resulted in over 100,000 casualties and lasted until November 1938. Franco, possessing superior artillery and air power, repelled the attack, prolonging the war unnecessarily. This strategy aimed to completely annihilate the enemy forces.
In November, the Republicans retreated across the Ebro, and Franco swiftly conquered Catalonia, dealing a severe economic blow to the Republicans, who lost over 50% of their industrial capacity. Barcelona fell in February 1939, and Franco’s troops reached the border, pursuing those attempting to flee to France.
5. The End of the War
By this point, the Nationalists had effectively won the war. Only Madrid, Valencia, Alicante, Murcia, and Almería remained under Republican control. The government led by Juan Negrín, supported by the Communists, sought to continue the resistance, hoping for the imminent outbreak of war in Europe. However, the Republican army was severely demoralized.
Colonel Segismundo Casado staged a revolt in Madrid, aiming to negotiate a surrender with Franco. However, Franco demanded unconditional surrender. On March 28th, Casado capitulated, and Franco’s troops entered Madrid and Alicante on March 30th. The war officially ended on April 1st, 1939. Franco established his personal dictatorship.